Welsh morphology
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2008-07-01T16:35:55Z
Garik
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No longer the same article
The '''[[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] of the [[Welsh language]]''' shows many characteristics perhaps unfamiliar to speakers of [[English language|English]] or continental European languages like [[French language|French]] or [[German language|German]], but has much in common with the other modern [[Insular Celtic languages]]: [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Scottish Gaelic]], [[Manx language|Manx]], [[Cornish language|Cornish]], and [[Breton language|Breton]].
Modern Welsh can be written in two varieties — '''Colloquial Welsh''' or '''Literary Welsh'''<ref>For a complete treatment of literary Welsh, see ''A Grammar of Welsh'' (1980) by Stephen J. Williams</ref>. The grammar described on this page is for Colloquial Welsh, which is used for speech and informal writing. Literary Welsh is closer to the form of Welsh used in the 1588 translation of the Bible and can be seen in formal writing.
==Initial consonant mutation==<!-- This section is linked from [[Welsh language]] -->
:''Related article: [[Lenition]]''
Initial [[consonant mutation]] is a phenomenon common to all [[Insular Celtic languages]], although there is no evidence of it in the ancient [[Continental Celtic languages]] of the early first millennium. The first [[consonant]] of a word in Welsh may change depending on grammatical context (such as when the grammatical [[object (grammar)|object]] directly follows the grammatical [[subject (grammar)|subject]]), or when preceded by certain words, e. g. {{lang|cy|''i''}}, {{lang|cy|''yn''}}, and {{lang|cy|''a''}}. Welsh has three mutations: the '''soft mutation''', the '''nasal mutation''', and the '''aspirate mutation'''. These are also represented in writing:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! Radical
! Soft
! Nasal
! Aspirate
|-
| p
| b
| mh
| ph
|-
| b
| f
| m
|
|-
| t
| d
| nh
| th
|-
| d
| dd
| n
|
|-
| c
| g
| ngh
| ch
|-
| g
| {{Unicode|∅}}*
| ng
|
|-
| m
| f
|
|
|-
| ll
| l
|
|
|-
| rh
| r
|
|
|}
A blank cell indicates no change.
For example, the word for "stone" is {{lang|cy|''carreg''}}, but "the stone" is {{lang|cy|''y garreg''}} (soft mutation), "my stone" is {{lang|cy|''fy ngharreg''}} (nasal mutation) and "her stone" is {{lang|cy|''ei charreg''}} (aspirate mutation). The examples show usage in the [[standard language]]; the soft mutation is slowly supplanting the nasal and aspirate mutations as the mechanism behind the mutations ceases to be understood. These days, the aspirate mutation is only really carried out for words beginning with ''c'' in colloquial language and in some areas it is totally unknown (it is sometimes joked that a sign of [[hypercorrection]] amongst learners is to order "[[Gin and Tonic|jin a thonic]]" in a bar). The nasal mutation is now only used in three circumstances and it is also being replaced by the soft mutation.
<nowiki>*</nowiki>The soft mutation for ''g'' is the simple deletion of the initial sound. For example, {{lang|cy|''gardd''}} "garden" becomes {{lang|cy|''yr ardd''}} "the garden".
=== Soft mutation ===<!-- This section is linked from [[Llanfairpwllgwyngyll]] -->
The '''soft mutation''' (Welsh: {{lang|cy|''treiglad meddal''}}) is by far the most common mutation in Welsh. When words undergo soft mutation, the general pattern is that unvoiced plosives become voiced plosives, and voiced plosives become fricatives or disappear; some fricatives also change, and the full list is shown in the above table.
In some cases a '''limited soft mutation''' takes place. This differs from the full soft mutation in that words beginning with ''rh'' and ''ll'' do not mutate.
Common situations where the '''limited''' soft mutation occurs are as follows – note that this list is by no means exhaustive.
* feminine singular nouns with the definite article or the number one ({{lang|cy|''un''}})
* nouns or adjectives used predicatively after {{lang|cy|''yn''}}
* adjectives following {{lang|cy|''mor''}} ("so") or {{lang|cy|''rhy''}} ("too")
Common situations where the '''full''' soft mutation occurs are as follows – note that this list is by no means exhaustive.
* adjectives qualifying feminine nouns (including verbal nouns used as adjectives)
* words immediately following most prepositions, such as {{lang|cy|''i''}} ("to"), {{lang|cy|''o''}} (preposition used before quantifiers) and {{lang|cy|''wrth''}} ("by" or "near")
* adjectives used adverbially (after {{lang|cy|''yn''}})
* nouns used with the number two ({{lang|cy|''dau'' / ''dwy''}})
* nouns following adjectives (N.B. most adjectives follow the noun)
* nouns after the possessives {{lang|cy|''dy''}} (informal ''your'') and {{lang|cy|''ei''}} (when it means ''his'')
* an object immediately following the subject (typically after conjugated verbs)
* in many cases, the second word in a compound
* verb infinitives following an indirect object (e.g. {{lang|cy|''rhaid imi fynd''}} - it is necessary to me to go)
* conjugated verbs in the interrogative
* any word following a noun phrase
The occurrence of the soft mutation often obscures the origin of placenames to non-Welsh-speaking visitors. For example, {{lang|cy|''[[Llanfair]]''}} is the church of {{lang|cy|''Mair''}} ([[Mary (mother of Jesus)|Mary]]), and {{lang|cy|''[[Pontardawe]]''}} is the bridge on the [[River Tawe|Tawe]].
=== Nasal mutation ===
The '''nasal mutation''' (Welsh: {{lang|cy|''treiglad trwynol''}}) normally occurs:
* after {{lang|cy|''fy''}} ("my") e.g. {{lang|cy|''gwely''}} ("a bed"), {{lang|cy|''fy ngwely''}} ("my bed")
* after the locative preposition {{lang|cy|''yn''}} ("in") e.g. {{lang|cy|''Tywyn''}} ("[[Tywyn]]"), {{lang|cy|''yn Nhywyn''}} ("in Tywyn")
* after the negating [[Prefix (linguistics)|prefix]] {{lang|cy|''an-''}} ("un-") e.g. {{lang|cy|''teg''}} ("fair"), {{lang|cy|''annheg''}} ("unfair").
=====Notes=====
1. The preposition {{lang|cy|''yn''}} becomes {{lang|cy|''ym''}} if the following noun (mutated or not) begins with ''m'', and becomes {{lang|cy|''yng''}} if the following noun begins with ''ng''. E.g. {{lang|cy|''Bangor''}} ("Bangor"), {{lang|cy|''ym Mangor''}} ("in Bangor") {{lang|cy|''Caerdydd''}} ("Cardiff"), ''yng Nghaerdydd'' ("in Cardiff").
2. In words beginning with ''an-'', the ''n'' is dropped before the mutated consonant (except if the resultant mutation allows for a double ''n''), e.g. {{lang|cy|''an''}} + {{lang|cy|''personol''}} → {{lang|cy|''amhersonol''}} (although it would be retained before a non-mutating consonant, e.g. {{lang|cy|''an''}} + {{lang|cy|''sicr''}} → {{lang|cy|''ansicr''}}).
Under nasal mutation, [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]] [[stop consonant|plosives]] become [[nasal consonant|nasals]], and unvoiced plosives become [[aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] nasals.
==== Pronunciation ====
The aspirated nasals may appear at first hard for [[English language|English]] speakers to pronounce. However, in fact they are generally pronounced as an aspirated nasal followed by ''h'', and this does not in practice result in a large cluster of consonant sounds because it is preceded either by the [[vowel]] ending of {{lang|cy|''fy''}}, or a form of {{lang|cy|''yn''}} where the ''-n'' is possibly replaced with ''-m'' or ''-ng'' to match the first letter of the mutated word. For example:
*{{lang|cy|''fy''}} + {{lang|cy|''tadau''}} → {{lang|cy|''[[Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau|fy nhadau]]''}}, pronounced as {{lang|cy|''fyn hadau''}}
*{{lang|cy|''yn''}} + {{lang|cy|''[[Cardiff|Caerdydd]]''}} → {{lang|cy|''yng Nghaerdydd''}}, pronounced as {{lang|cy|''yng haerdydd''}}
==== Grammatical considerations ====
Note that {{lang|cy|''yn''}} meaning "in" must be distinguished from other uses of {{lang|cy|''yn''}} which do not cause nasal mutation. For example:
*In the sentence {{lang|cy|''Mae plastig yn nhrwyn Siaco''}}, ''trwyn'' has undergone nasal mutation.
*In the sentence {{lang|cy|''Mae trwyn Siaco yn blastig''}}, ''plastig'' has undergone [[soft mutation]], not nasal mutation.
*In the sentence {{lang|cy|''Mae trwyn Siaco yn cynnwys plastig''}}, ''cynnwys'' is not mutated.
Note also that the {{lang|cy|''’m''}} form often used instead of {{lang|cy|''fy''}} after vowels does not cause nasal mutation. For example:
* {{lang|cy|''Pleidiol wyf i'm gwlad.''}} (not [[Asterisk#Linguistics|*]]''i'm ngwlad'')
=== Aspirate mutation ===
The aspirate mutation (Welsh: ''treiglad llaes'') turns the unvoiced plosives into aspirated fricatives. It is easiest to remember based on an addition of an ''h'' in the spelling (''c'', ''p'', ''t'' → ''ch'', ''ph'', ''th''), although strictly speaking the resultant forms are single phonemes which happen to contain an ''h'' as the second character.
The aspirate mutation occurs:
* after the possessive {{lang|cy|''ei''}} when it means "her"
* after {{lang|cy|''a''}} ("and")
* after {{lang|cy|''â''}} ("with")
* for masculine nouns after the number three ({{lang|cy|''tri''}})
* after the number six ({{lang|cy|''chwech''}}, written before the noun as {{lang|cy|''chwe''}})
The aspirate mutation also causes an ''h'' to be added before words beginning with a vowel (e.g. {{lang|cy|''oed''}} = age, {{lang|cy|''ei hoed''}} = her age), although {{lang|cy|''a''}} and {{lang|cy|''â''}} before a vowel change to {{lang|cy|''ac''}} and {{lang|cy|''ag''}} and the word beginning with a vowel is itself unaffected.
=== Mixed mutation ===
A mixed mutation occurs when negating conjugated verbs. Initial consonants which change under the aspirate mutation do so; other consonants change as in the soft mutation (if at all). For example, {{lang|cy|''clwyais i''}} ("I heard") and {{lang|cy|''dwedais i''}} ("I said") are negated as {{lang|cy|''chlywais i ddim''}} ("I heard nothing") and {{lang|cy|''ddwedais i ddim''}} ("I said nothing").
==The article==
Welsh has no indefinite [[article (grammar)|article]]. The definite article, which precedes the words it modifies and whose usage differs little from that of English, has the forms {{lang|cy|''y, yr,''}} and {{lang|cy|''’r''}}. The rules governing their usage are:
* When the previous word ends in a vowel, regardless of the quality of the word following, {{lang|cy|''’r''}} is used, e.g. {{lang|cy|''mae'r gath tu allan''}} ("the cat is outside"). This rule takes precedence over the other two.
* When the word begins with a vowel, {{lang|cy|''yr''}} is used, e.g. {{lang|cy|''yr ardd''}} ("the garden").
* In all other places, {{lang|cy|''y''}} is used, e.g. {{lang|cy|''y bachgen''}} ("the boy").
The article triggers the soft mutation when it is used with feminine singular nouns, e.g. {{lang|cy|''tywysoges''}} "(a) princess" but {{lang|cy|''y dywysoges''}} ("the princess").
==Nouns==
Like most other Indo-European languages, all nouns belong to a certain [[grammatical gender]]; in this case, masculine or feminine. A noun's gender conforms to its referent's natural gender when it has one (e.g. {{lang|cy|''mam''}} "mother" is feminine), but otherwise there is no pattern, and gender simply must be learnt.
Welsh has two systems of [[grammatical number]]. [[Plural|Singular/plural]] nouns correspond to the singular/plural number system of English, although unlike English, Welsh noun plurals are unpredictable and formed in several ways. Some nouns form the plural with an ending (usually {{lang|cy|''-au''}}), e.g. {{lang|cy|''tad''}} and {{lang|cy|''tadau''}}. Others form the plural through vowel change, e.g. {{lang|cy|''bachgen''}} and {{lang|cy|''bechgyn''}}. Still others form their plurals through some combination of the two, e.g. {{lang|cy|''chwaer''}} and {{lang|cy|''chwiorydd''}}.
The other system of number is the [[collective number|collective/unit system]]. The nouns in this system form the singular by adding the suffix {{lang|cy|''-yn''}} (for masculine nouns) or {{lang|cy|''-en''}} (for feminine nouns) to the plural. Most nouns which belong in this system are frequently found in groups, for example, {{lang|cy|''plant''}} "children" and {{lang|cy|''plentyn''}} "a child", or {{lang|cy|''coed''}} "forest" and {{lang|cy|''coeden''}} "a tree". In dictionaries, the plural is often given first.
[[Genitive]] relationships are expressed by [[apposition]]. The genitive in Welsh is formed by putting two [[noun phrase]]s next to each other, the possessor coming second. So English "The cat's mother", or "mother of the cat", corresponds to Welsh {{lang|cy|''mam y gath''}} — literally, "mother the cat"; "the man's car's windows" is {{lang|cy|''ffenestri car y dyn''}} — literally, "windows car the man". The thing possessed never takes the article.
==Adjectives==
Adjectives normally follow the noun they qualify, while some, such as {{lang|cy|''hen, pob,''}} and {{lang|cy|''holl''}} precede it. For the most part, adjectives are uninflected, though there are a few which maintain distinct masculine/feminine or singular/plural distinctions. After feminine singular nouns, adjectives receive the soft mutation.
Adjective comparison in Welsh is fairly similar to the English system. Adjectives with one or two syllables receive the endings {{lang|cy|''-ach''}} "-er" and {{lang|cy|''-a(f)''}} "-est", which change final ''b, d, g'' into ''p, t, c'' by [[fortition|provection]], e. g. {{lang|cy|''teg''}} "fair", {{lang|cy|''tecach''}} "fairer", {{lang|cy|''teca(f)''}} "fairest". Adjectives with two or more syllables use the words {{lang|cy|''mwy''}} "more" and {{lang|cy|''mwya''}} "most", e. g. {{lang|cy|''teimladwy''}} "sensitive", {{lang|cy|''mwy teimladwy''}} "more sensitive", {{lang|cy|''mwya teimladwy''}} "most sensitive". Adjectives with two syllables can go either way.
These are the possessive adjectives:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|fy}} (n)
| {{lang|cy|ein}}
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|dy}} (s)
| {{lang|cy|eich}}
|-
! rowspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Masculine
| {{lang|cy|ei}} (s)
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|cy|eu}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Feminine
| {{lang|cy|ei}} (a)
|}
The possessive adjectives precede the noun they qualify, which is often followed by the corresponding form of the personal pronoun, e.g. {{lang|cy|''fy mara i''}} "my bread", {{lang|cy|''dy fara di''}} "your bread", {{lang|cy|''ei fara fe''}} "his bread", etc.
The demonstrative adjectives are'' 'ma'' "this"' and'' 'na'' "that". They follow the noun they qualify, which also takes the article. For example, {{lang|cy|''y llyfr''}} "the book", {{lang|cy|''y llyfr 'ma''}} "this book", {{lang|cy|''y llyfr 'na''}} "that book".
==Pronouns==
===Personal pronouns===
The Welsh personal pronouns are:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|(f)i, mi}}
| {{lang|cy|ni}}
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|ti, di}}
| {{lang|cy|chi}}
|-
! rowspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Masculine
| {{lang|cy|(f)e, (f)o}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|cy|nhw}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Feminine
| {{lang|cy|hi}}
|}
The Welsh masculine-feminine gender distinction is reflected in the pronouns. There is, consequently, no word corresponding to English "it", and the choice of {{lang|cy|''e''}} or {{lang|cy|''hi''}} depends on the grammatical gender of the antecedent.
The English [[Dummy pronoun|dummy]] "it" construction in phrases like "it's raining" or "it was cold last night" also exists in Welsh and other Indo-European languages like French. Unlike other masculine-feminine languages, which often default to the masculine pronoun in the construction, Welsh uses the feminine singular {{lang|cy|''hi''}}, thus producing sentences like:
: {{lang|cy|''Mae hi'n bwrw glaw.''}}
: It's raining.
: {{lang|cy|''O'dd hi'n oer neithiwr.''}}
: It was cold last night.
====Notes on the forms====
Third-person masculine singular forms {{lang|cy|''o''}} and {{lang|cy|''fo''}} are heard in North Wales, while {{lang|cy|''e''}} and {{lang|cy|''fe''}} are heard in South Wales.
The pronoun forms {{lang|cy|''i, e''}}, and {{lang|cy|''o''}} are used as subjects after a verb. In the inflected future of the verbs {{lang|cy|''mynd, gwneud, dod''}}, and {{lang|cy|''cael''}}, first-person singular constructions like {{lang|cy|''do fi''}} may be heard. {{lang|cy|''I, e''}}, and {{lang|cy|''o''}} are also used as objects with compound prepositions, for example {{lang|cy|''o mlaen o''}} 'in front of him'. {{lang|cy|''Fi, fe''}}, and {{lang|cy|''fo''}} are used after conjunctions and non-inflected prepositions, and also as the object of an inflected verb:
: {{lang|cy|''Weloch chi fo dros y Sul?''}}
: Did you see him over the weekend?
{{lang|cy|''Fe''}} and {{lang|cy|''fo''}} exclusively are used as subjects with the inflected conditional:
: {{lang|cy|''Dylai fe brynu ti un newydd.''}}
: He ought to buy you a new one.
Both {{lang|cy|''i, e''}}, and {{lang|cy|''o''}} and {{lang|cy|''fi, fe''}}, and {{lang|cy|''fo''}} are heard with [[inflected preposition]]s, as objects of verbal nouns, and also as following pronouns with their respective possessive adjectives:
: {{lang|cy|''Wyt ti wedi gweld e/fe heddiw?''}}
: Have you seen him today?
: {{lang|cy|''Alla i ddim cael hyd i fy allweddi i/fi.''}}
: I can't find my keys.
The use of first-person singular {{lang|cy|''mi''}} is limited in the spoken language, appearing in {{lang|cy|''i mi''}} "to/for me" or as the subject with the verb {{lang|cy|''ddaru''}}, used in a preterite construction.
{{lang|cy|''Ti''}} is found most often as the second-person singular pronoun, however {{lang|cy|''di''}} is used as the subject of inflected future forms, as a reinforcement in the imperative, and as following pronoun to the possessive adjective {{lang|cy|''dy ...''}} "your ..."
===={{lang|cy|''Ti''}} vs. {{lang|cy|''chi''}}====
{{lang|cy|''Chi''}}, in addition to serving as the second-person plural pronoun, is also used as a singular in formal situations. Conversely, {{lang|cy|''ti''}} can be said to be limited to the informal singular, such as when speaking with a family member, a friend, or a child. This usage corresponds closely to the practice in other European languages; however, Welsh has a more complex system, involving a third form, {{lang|cy|''chdi''}}.
{{see|T-V distinction}}
====Reflexive pronouns====
The reflexive pronouns are formed with the possessive adjective followed by {{lang|cy|''hun''}} "self". There is variation between North and South forms.
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background: #efefef;" | North
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|fyn hun, y hun}}
| {{lang|cy|ein hun}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|dy hun}}
| {{lang|cy|eich hun}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|ei hun}}
| {{lang|cy|eu hun}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background: #efefef;" | South
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|fyn hunan, y hunan}}
| {{lang|cy|ein hunain}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|dy hunan}}
| {{lang|cy|eich hunain, eich hunan}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|ei hunan}}
| {{lang|cy|eu hunain}}
|}
Note that there is no gender distinction in the third person singular.
====Emphatic pronouns====
Welsh has special emphatic forms of the personal pronouns. They are not too common, though nevertheless alive in the language, especially in [[set phrase]]s like {{lang|cy|''a finnau''}} "me too".
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|innau, finnau, minnau}}
| {{lang|cy|ninnau}}
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|tithau, dithau}}
| {{lang|cy|chithau}}
|-
! rowspan="2" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Masculine
| {{lang|cy|yntau, fintau}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|cy|nhwthau}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Feminine
| {{lang|cy|hithau}}
|}
The emphatic pronouns can also be used in place of the regular pronouns with possessive adjectives to add emphasis to the possessives.
===Demonstrative pronouns===
In addition to having masculine and feminine forms of ''this'' and ''that'', Welsh also has separate set of ''this'' and ''that'' for intangible, figurative, or general ideas.
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| scope="col" |
! scope="col" | Masculine
! scope="col" | Feminine
! scope="col" | Intangible
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | this
| {{lang|cy|hwn}}
| {{lang|cy|hon}}
| {{lang|cy|hyn}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | that
| {{lang|cy|hwnnw, hwnna}}
| {{lang|cy|honno, honna}}
| {{lang|cy|hynny}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | these
! colspan="2" style="background: #f9f9f9; font-weight: normal" | {{lang|cy|y rhain}}
! rowspan="2" style="background: #efefef;" |
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | those
! colspan="2" style="background: #f9f9f9; font-weight: normal" | {{lang|cy|y rheiny}}
|}
In certain expressions, {{lang|cy|''hyn''}} may represent "now" and {{lang|cy|''hynny''}} may represent "then".
==Verbs==
In Welsh, the majority of tenses make use of an auxiliary verb, usually {{lang|cy|''bod''}} "to be". Its conjugation is dealt with in Irregular Verbs below.
There are four periphrastic tenses in Welsh which make use of {{lang|cy|''bod''}}: present, imperfect, future, and conditional. All are formed in the same basic way: the appropriate form of {{lang|cy|''bod''}}, the complement marker {{lang|cy|''yn''}} (contracted to {{lang|cy|''’n''}} after vowels), and the verbal noun. Thus "he thinks" (or "he is thinking") is rendered {{lang|cy|''Mae e'n meddwl''}}. "He will think" is {{lang|cy|''bydd e'n meddwl''}}. Welsh does not distinguish progressive actions.
Welsh does, however, distinguish perfect actions in all the periphrastic tenses by replacing {{lang|cy|''yn''}} with {{lang|cy|''wedi''}}. The perfect is then expressed with the present forms of {{lang|cy|''bod''}}, the pluperfect with the imperfect forms, the future perfect with the future forms, and the conditional perfect with the conditional forms. For example, "he has thought" is {{lang|cy|''mae e wedi meddwl''}}.
Welsh maintains inflected preterite, future, and conditional tenses, demonstrated here with {{lang|cy|''talu''}} 'pay'.
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background: #efefef;" | Preterite
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|tales}}
| {{lang|cy|talon}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|talest}}
| {{lang|cy|taloch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|talodd}}
| {{lang|cy|talon}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background: #efefef;" | Future
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|tala}}
| {{lang|cy|talwn}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|tali}}
| {{lang|cy|talwch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|talith}}
| {{lang|cy|talan}}
|-
! scope="row" rowspan="3" style="background: #efefef;" | Conditional
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|talwn}}
| {{lang|cy|talen}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|talet}}
| {{lang|cy|talech}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|talai}}
| {{lang|cy|talen}}
|}
*Notes on the preterite:
**First and second singular forms may be written as {{lang|cy|''talais''}} and {{lang|cy|''talaist''}}, though there is no difference in pronunciation.
**In some parts of Wales ''-s-'' may be inserted between the stem and plural forms.
**In parts of South Wales forms like {{lang|cy|''talws''}} are heard for {{lang|cy|''talodd''}}.
*Notes on the future:
** {{lang|cy|''di''}} is used instead of {{lang|cy|''ti''}}, thus {{lang|cy|''tali di''}}, not {{lang|cy|*''tali ti''}}.
** Forms like {{lang|cy|''taliff''}} may appear instead of {{lang|cy|''talith''}} in some southern parts of Wales.
*Notes on the conditional:
**''-s-'' may be inserted between the stem and endings.
In the preterite, questions are formed with the soft mutation on the verb, though increasingly the soft mutation is being used in all situations. Negative forms are expressed with ''ddim'' after the pronoun and the mixed mutation, though here the soft mutation is taking over ({{lang|cy|''dales i ddim''}} for {{lang|cy|''thales i ddim''}}).
Periphrasitic constructions of the preterite, future, and conditional also exist. For all of these, the appropriate tense of {{lang|cy|''gwneud''}} "to do" (conjugated below) may be used with the verbal noun. The preterite may also be formed with {{lang|cy|''ddaru''}} "to happen", which does not alter its form.
===Irregular verbs===
===={{lang|cy|''Bod''}} and compounds====
''Bod'' 'to be' is highly irregular. In addition to having inflected forms of the preterite, future, and conditional, it also maintains inflected present and imperfect forms which are used frequently as auxiliaries with other verbs. ''Bod'' also distinguishes between affirmative, interrogative, and negative statements for each tense.
The present tense in particular shows a split between the North and the South. King (2003) notes the following spoken variations in the present forms:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Affirmative''' (''I am'')
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Interrogative''' (''Am I?'')
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Negative''' (''I am not'')
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | North
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|dw}}
| {{lang|cy|dan}}
| {{lang|cy|ydw?}}
| {{lang|cy|ydan?}}
| {{lang|cy|(dy)dw}}
| {{lang|cy|(dy)dan}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| —, {{lang|cy|(r)wyt}}
| {{lang|cy|dach}}
| {{lang|cy|wyt?}}
| {{lang|cy|(y)dach?}}
| {{lang|cy|dwyt}}
| {{lang|cy|(dy)dach}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|mae}}
| {{lang|cy|maen}}
| {{lang|cy|ydy?}}
| {{lang|cy|ydyn?}}
| {{lang|cy|dydy}}
| {{lang|cy|dydyn}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | South
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|rw, w}}
| {{lang|cy|ŷn}}, —
| {{lang|cy|ydw?}}
| {{lang|cy|ŷn?}}
| {{lang|cy|(d)w}}
| {{lang|cy|ŷn}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| —, {{lang|cy|(r)wyt}}
| {{lang|cy|ych}}
| {{lang|cy|wyt?}}
| {{lang|cy|ych?}}
| —
| {{lang|cy|(ych)}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|mae}}
| {{lang|cy|maen}}
| {{lang|cy|ydy?, yw?}}
| {{lang|cy|ŷn?}}
| {{lang|cy|dyw}}
| {{lang|cy|ŷn}}
|}
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Affirmative''' (''I am'')
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Interrogative''' (''Am I?'')
! colspan="2" scope="col" style="font-weight: normal;" | '''Negative''' (''I am not'')
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Preterite
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|bues}}
| {{lang|cy|buon}}
| {{lang|cy|fues?}}
| {{lang|cy|fuon?}}
| {{lang|cy|fues}}
| {{lang|cy|fuon}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|buest}}
| {{lang|cy|buoch}}
| {{lang|cy|fuest?}}
| {{lang|cy|fuoch?}}
| {{lang|cy|fuest}}
| {{lang|cy|fuoch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|buodd}}
| {{lang|cy|buon}}
| {{lang|cy|fuodd?}}
| {{lang|cy|fuon?}}
| {{lang|cy|fuodd}}
| {{lang|cy|fuon}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Imperfect
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|roeddwn}}
| {{lang|cy|roedden}}
| {{lang|cy|oeddwn?}}
| {{lang|cy|oedden?}}
| {{lang|cy|doeddwn}}
| {{lang|cy|doedden}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|roeddet}}
| {{lang|cy|roeddech}}
| {{lang|cy|oeddet?}}
| {{lang|cy|oeddech?}}
| {{lang|cy|doeddet}}
| {{lang|cy|doeddech}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|roedd}}
| {{lang|cy|roeddyn}}
| {{lang|cy|oedd?}}
| {{lang|cy|oeddyn?}}
| {{lang|cy|doedd}}
| {{lang|cy|doeddyn}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Future
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|bydda}}
| {{lang|cy|byddwn}}
| {{lang|cy|fydda?}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddwn?}}
| {{lang|cy|fydda}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddwn}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|byddi}}
| {{lang|cy|byddwch}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddi?}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddwch?}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddi}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddwch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|bydd}}
| {{lang|cy|byddan}}
| {{lang|cy|fydd?}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddan?}}
| {{lang|cy|fydd}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddan}}
|}
{{lang|cy|''Bod''}} also has a conditional, for which there are two stems:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Affirmative
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Interrogative
! colspan="2" scope="col" | Negative
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | {{lang|cy|bydd-}}
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|byddwn}}
| {{lang|cy|bydden}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddwn}}
| {{lang|cy|fydden}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddwn?}}
| {{lang|cy|fydden?}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|byddet}}
| {{lang|cy|byddech}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddet}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddech}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddet?}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddech?}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|byddai}}
| {{lang|cy|bydden}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddai}}
| {{lang|cy|fydden}}
| {{lang|cy|fyddai?}}
| {{lang|cy|fydden?}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | {{lang|cy|bas-}}
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|baswn}}
| {{lang|cy|basen}}
| {{lang|cy|faswn}}
| {{lang|cy|fasen}}
| {{lang|cy|faswn?}}
| {{lang|cy|fasen?}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|baset}}
| {{lang|cy|basech}}
| {{lang|cy|faset}}
| {{lang|cy|fasech}}
| {{lang|cy|faset?}}
| {{lang|cy|fasech?}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|basai}}
| {{lang|cy|basen}}
| {{lang|cy|fasai}}
| {{lang|cy|fasen}}
| {{lang|cy|fasai?}}
| {{lang|cy|fasen?}}
|}
* {{lang|cy|''ddim''}} ("not") is added after the pronoun for negative forms of {{lang|cy|''bod.''}}
* There are many dialectal variations of this verb.
* Colloquially the imperfect tense forms are {{lang|cy|''o'n i, o't ti, oedd e/hi, o'n ni, o'ch chi''}} and {{lang|cy|''o'n nhw''}}. These are used for the declarative, interrogative and negative.
* In speech the future and conditional forms often receive the soft mutation in all situations.
* Welsh is unusual in having no fixed words for "yes" and "no". The relevant part of the verb {{lang|cy|''bod''}} is used instead e.g.: {{lang|cy|''Ydych chi'n hoffi coffi?''}} (Are you liking coffee? = Do you like coffee?) then either {{lang|cy|''Ydw''}} (I am = I do = Yes) or {{lang|cy|''Nac ydw''}} (I am not = I do not = No)
A few verbs which have {{lang|cy|''bod''}} in the verbnoun display certain irregular characteristics of {{lang|cy|''bod''}} itself. {{lang|cy|''Gwybod''}} is the most irregular of these. It has preterite and conditional forms, which are often used with present and imperfect meaning, respectively. The present is conjugated irregularly:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
|
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|gwn}}
| {{lang|cy|gwyddon}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|gwyddost}}
| {{lang|cy|gwyddoch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|gŵyr}}
| {{lang|cy|gwyddon}}
|}
The common phrase {{lang|cy|''dwn i ddim''}} "I don't know" uses a special negative form of the first person present.
===={{lang|cy|''Mynd, gwneud, cael,''}} and {{lang|cy|''dod''}}====
The four verbs {{lang|cy|''mynd''}} "to go", {{lang|cy|''gwneud''}} "to do", {{lang|cy|''cael''}} "to get", and {{lang|cy|''dod''}} "to come" are all irregular in similar ways.
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|mynd}}
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|gwneud}}
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|cael}}
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|dod}}
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Preterite
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|es}}
| {{lang|cy|aethon}}
| {{lang|cy|nes}}
| {{lang|cy|naethon}}
| {{lang|cy|ces}}
| {{lang|cy|caethon}}
| {{lang|cy|des}}
| {{lang|cy|daethon}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|est}}
| {{lang|cy|aethoch}}
| {{lang|cy|nest}}
| {{lang|cy|naethoch}}
| {{lang|cy|cest}}
| {{lang|cy|caethoch}}
| {{lang|cy|dest}}
| {{lang|cy|daethoch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|aeth}}
| {{lang|cy|aethon}}
| {{lang|cy|naeth}}
| {{lang|cy|naethon}}
| {{lang|cy|caeth}}
| {{lang|cy|caethon}}
| {{lang|cy|daeth}}
| {{lang|cy|daethon}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Future
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|a}}
| {{lang|cy|awn}}
| {{lang|cy|na}}
| {{lang|cy|nawn}}
| {{lang|cy|ca}}
| {{lang|cy|cawn}}
| {{lang|cy|do}}
| {{lang|cy|down}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|ei}}
| {{lang|cy|ewch}}
| {{lang|cy|nei}}
| {{lang|cy|newch}}
| {{lang|cy|cei}}
| {{lang|cy|cewch}}
| {{lang|cy|doi}}
| {{lang|cy|dewch}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|eith}}
| {{lang|cy|ân}}
| {{lang|cy|neith}}
| {{lang|cy|nân}}
| {{lang|cy|ceith}}
| {{lang|cy|cân}}
| {{lang|cy|daw}}
| {{lang|cy|dôn}}
|}
The forms {{lang|cy|''caeth, caethon, caethoch''}} often appear as {{lang|cy|''cafodd, cawson, cawsoch''}} in writing, and in places in Wales these are also heard in speech.
In the conditional, there is considerable variation between the North and South forms of these four irregular verbs.
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| rowspan="2" colspan="2" |
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|mynd}}
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|gwneud}}
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|cael}}
! colspan="2" scope="col" | {{lang|cy|dod}}
|- style="background: #efefef;"
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | North
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|awn}}
| {{lang|cy|aen}}
| {{lang|cy|nawn}}
| {{lang|cy|naen}}
| {{lang|cy|cawn}}
| {{lang|cy|caen}}
| {{lang|cy|down}}
| {{lang|cy|doen}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|aet}}
| {{lang|cy|aech}}
| {{lang|cy|naet}}
| {{lang|cy|naech}}
| {{lang|cy|caet}}
| {{lang|cy|caech}}
| {{lang|cy|doet}}
| {{lang|cy|doech}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|âi}}
| {{lang|cy|aen}}
| {{lang|cy|nâi}}
| {{lang|cy|naen}}
| {{lang|cy|câi}}
| {{lang|cy|caen}}
| {{lang|cy|dôi}}
| {{lang|cy|doen}}
|-
! rowspan="3" scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | South
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|elwn}}
| {{lang|cy|elen}}
| {{lang|cy|nelwn}}
| {{lang|cy|nelen}}
| {{lang|cy|celwn}}
| {{lang|cy|celen}}
| {{lang|cy|delwn}}
| {{lang|cy|delen}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|elet}}
| {{lang|cy|elech}}
| {{lang|cy|nelet}}
| {{lang|cy|nelech}}
| {{lang|cy|celet}}
| {{lang|cy|celech}}
| {{lang|cy|delet}}
| {{lang|cy|delech}}
|-
! scope="row" style="background: #efefef;" | Third Person
| {{lang|cy|elai}}
| {{lang|cy|elen}}
| {{lang|cy|nelai}}
| {{lang|cy|nelen}}
| {{lang|cy|celai}}
| {{lang|cy|celen}}
| {{lang|cy|delai}}
| {{lang|cy|delen}}
|}
==Prepositions==
In Welsh, [[preposition]]s frequently change their form when followed by a pronoun. These are known as inflected prepositions. Most of them, such as {{lang|cy|''dan''}}, follow the same basic pattern:
:{| class="wikitable"
|- style="background: #efefef;"
| colspan="2" |
! scope="col" | Singular
! scope="col" | Plural
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" | First Person
| {{lang|cy|dana i}}
| {{lang|cy|danon ni}}
|-
! colspan="2" scope="row" | Second Person
| {{lang|cy|danat ti}}
| {{lang|cy|danoch chi}}
|-
! rowspan="2" scope="row" | Third Person
! scope="row" | Masculine
| {{lang|cy|dano fe/fo}}
| rowspan="2" | {{lang|cy|danyn nhw}}
|-
! scope="row" | Feminine
| {{lang|cy|dani hi}}
|}
There is some dialectal variation, particularly in the first and second person singular forms. In some places one may hear {{lang|cy|''dano i'', ''danot ti'',}} or {{lang|cy|''danach chi''.}}
The majority of prepositions trigger the soft mutation.
== Notes ==
<references/>
== References ==
*King, G. (2003). ''Modern Welsh''. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-28270-5
{{Welsh linguistics}}
[[Category:Welsh language|Morphology]]
[[Category:Grammars of specific languages]]