William Whewell 205488 225481024 2008-07-13T22:34:50Z Iridescent 937705 Cleanup/[[WP:AWB/T|typo fixing]], typos fixed: philosphers → philosophers using [[Project:AutoWikiBrowser|AWB]] {{Cleanup|date=October 2006}} {{Infobox Scientist |name = William Whewell |box_width = 300px |image = Whewell William signature.jpg |image_width = |caption = William Whewell (1794-1866) |birth_date = {{birth date|1794|05|24}} |birth_place = [[Lancaster, England]]|Lancaster]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]] |death_date = {{death date and age|1866|03|06|1794|05|24}} |death_place = [[Cambridge]], [[Cambridgeshire]], [[England]] |residence = [[England]] |citizenship = |nationality = [[England|English]] |ethnicity = |field = [[Polymath]], [[philosopher]], [[theologian]] |work_institutions = [[University of Cambridge]] |alma_mater = [[University of Cambridge]] |doctoral_advisor = [[John Gough (natural philosopher)|John Gough]] |doctoral_students = [[Augustus De Morgan]]</br>[[Isaac Todhunter]] |known_for = Coining the words '[[Scientist#Etymology|scientist]]' and '[[physicist]]' and the phrase '[[hypothetico-deductive]]' |author_abbrev_bot = |author_abbrev_zoo = |influences = |influenced = |prizes = |religion = |footnotes = }} '''William Whewell''' ([[May 24]], [[1794]] &ndash; [[March 6]], [[1866]]) was an English [[polymath]], [[scientist]], [[Anglican]] [[priest]], [[philosopher]], [[theologian]], and [[History of science|historian of science]]. His surname is pronounced "hew-el." ({{IPAEng|ˈhjuːəl}}) ==Life and career== Whewell was born in [[Lancaster, England|Lancaster]], [[England]]. His father, a carpenter, wished him to follow his trade, but his success in [[mathematics]] at [[Lancaster Grammar School|Lancaster]] and [[Heversham Grammar School|Heversham]] [[grammar school]]s won him an [[exhibition (scholarship)|exhibition]] (a type of scholarship) at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] (1812). He was [[Second Wrangler]] in [[1816]], President of the [[Cambridge Union Society]] in [[1817]], became fellow and tutor of his college, and, in [[1841]], succeeded [[Christopher Wordsworth (Trinity)|Dr Christopher Wordsworth]] as master. He was [[professor]] of [[mineralogy]] from [[1828]] to [[1832]] and [[Knightbridge Professor of Philosophy]] (then called "moral theology and casuistical divinity") from [[1838]] to [[1855]]. Whewell died in Cambridge 1866 as a result of a fall from his horse.<ref>GRO Register of Deaths: MAR 1866 3b 353 CAMBRIDGE - William Whewell, aged 71</ref> Full bibliographical details are given by Isaac Todhunter, ''W. Whewell: an Account of his Writings'' (2 vols., 1876). See also ''Life of W. Whewell'', by Mrs Stair Douglas (1881). ==Scientific generalist== ===Multiple disciplines=== What is most often remarked about Whewell is the breadth of his endeavours. At a time when men of science were becoming increasingly specialised, Whewell appears as a vestige of an earlier era when men of science dabbled in a bit of everything. He researched ocean tides (for which he won the Royal Medal), published work in the disciplines of [[mechanics]], [[physics]], [[geology]], [[astronomy]], and [[economics]], while also finding the time to compose [[poetry]], author a [[Bridgewater Treatise]], translate the works of [[Goethe]], and write [[sermon]]s and [[Theology|theological]] tracts. ===Tracing the history and development of science=== For all these pursuits, it comes as no surprise that his best-known works are two voluminous books which attempt to map and systematize the development of the sciences, ''History of the Inductive Sciences'' (1837) and ''The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences, Founded Upon Their History'' (1840). While the History traced how each branch of the sciences had evolved since antiquity, Whewell viewed the [[Philosophy]] as the “Moral” of the previous work as it sought to extract a universal theory of knowledge through the history he had just traced. In the ''Philosophy'', Whewell attempted to follow [[Francis Bacon (philosopher)|Francis Bacon]]'s plan for discovery of an effectual art of discovery. He examined ideas ("explication of conceptions") and by the "colligation of facts" endeavoured to unite these ideas with the facts and so construct science. But no art of discovery, such as Bacon anticipated, follows, for "invention, sagacity, genius" are needed at each step. ===Whewell's three steps of induction=== Whewell analysed [[inductive reasoning]] into three steps: * The selection of the (fundamental) idea, such as space, number, cause, or likeness (resemblance); * The formation of the conception, or more special modification of those ideas, as a circle, a uniform force, etc.; and, * The determination of magnitudes. Upon these follow special methods of induction applicable to quantity: the method of curves, the method of means, the method of least squares and the method of residues, and special methods depending on resemblance (to which the transition is made through the law of continuity), such as the method of gradation and the method of natural classification. In ''Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences'' Whewell was the first to use the term "[[consilience]]" to discuss the unification of knowledge between the different branches of learning. ===Opponent of English empiricism=== Here, as in his [[ethics|ethical]] doctrine, Whewell was moved by opposition to contemporary [[Empiricism|English empiricism]]. Following [[Immanuel Kant]], he asserted against [[John Stuart Mill]] the ''[[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]'' nature of necessary truth, and by his rules for the construction of conceptions he dispensed with the inductive methods of Mill. ===Whewell's neologisms=== One of Whewell's greatest gifts to science was his wordsmithing. He often corresponded with many in his field and helped them come up with [[neologism|new terms]] for their discoveries. In fact, Whewell came up with the term ''[[scientist]]'' itself. <!-- using it first in an 1834 review of [[Mary Somerville]]'s ''On the Connexion of the Sciences''. Removing this until I can find a verified cite for it; there are several different stories about his invention of this term. --> (They had previously been known as "natural philosophers" or "men of science"). Whewell also contributed the terms [[physicist]], [[consilience]], [[catastrophism]], and [[uniformitarianism]], amongst others; Whewell suggested the terms [[anode]] and [[cathode]] to [[Michael Faraday]]; this terminology persists in electrical technology to this day. ==Work in college administration== Whewell was prominent not only in scientific research and philosophy, but also in [[university]] and college administration. His first work, ''An Elementary Treatise on Mechanics'' (1819), cooperated with those of [[George Peacock]] and [[John Herschel]] in reforming the Cambridge method of mathematical teaching. His work and publications also helped influence the recognition of the moral and natural sciences as an integral part of the Cambridge curriculum. In general, however, especially in later years, he opposed reform: he defended the [[tutorial system]], and in a controversy with [[Connop Thirlwall]] (1834), opposed the admission of [[Dissenter]]s; he upheld the clerical fellowship system, the privileged class of "fellow-commoners," and the authority of heads of colleges in university affairs. He opposed the appointment of the University Commission (1850), and wrote two pamphlets (''Remarks'') against the reform of the university (1855). He stood against the scheme of entrusting elections to the members of the senate and instead, advocated the use of college funds and the subvention of scientific and professorial work. ==Whewell's interests in architecture== Aside from Science, Whewell was also interested in the [[history of architecture]] throughout his life. He is best known for his writings on [[Gothic architecture]], specifically his book, ''Architectural Notes on German Churches'' (first published in 1830). In this work, Whewell established a strict nomenclature for German Gothic churches and came up with a theory of stylistic development. His work is associated with the "scientific trend" of architectural writers, along with [[Thomas Rickman]] and [[Robert Willis (architect)|Robert Willis]]. ==Whewell's works in philosophy and morals== Between 1835 and 1861 Whewell produced various works on the philosophy of [[moral]]s and [[politics]], the chief of which, ''Elements of Morality'', including ''Polity'', was published in 1845. The peculiarity of this work--written, of course, from what is known as the [[Intuition (knowledge)|intuitional point of view]]--is its fivefold division of the springs of action and of their objects, of the primary and universal rights of man (personal security, property, contract, family rights and government), and of the cardinal virtues ([[benevolence]], [[justice]], [[truth]], [[purity]] and [[order]]). Among Whewell's other works&mdash;too numerous to mention&mdash;were popular writings such as the third ''[[Bridgewater Treatise]]'' ''Astronomy and General Physics considered with reference to Natural Theology'' (1833), and the essay, ''Of the Plurality of Worlds'' (1854), in which he argued against the [[probability]] of [[Extraterrestrial life|life on other planets]], and also the ''[[Plato]]nic Dialogues for English Readers'' (1850-1861), the ''Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy in England'' (1852), the essay, ''Of a Liberal Education in General, with particular reference to the Leading Studies of the University of Cambridge'' (1845), the important edition and abridged translation of [[Hugo Grotius]], ''De jure belli ac pacis'' (1853), and the edition of the ''Mathematical Works'' of [[Isaac Barrow]] (1860). Whewell was one of the Cambridge [[University don|don]]s whom [[Charles Darwin]] met during [[Charles Darwin's education|his education there]], and after [[Second voyage of HMS Beagle|the ''Beagle'' voyage]] when Darwin was at the very start of ''[[The Origin of Species]]'' Darwin placed a citation from Whewell's ''Bridgewater Treatise'' showing his ideas to be founded on a [[natural theology]] of a creator establishing laws:<ref>{{Harvard reference | Surname = Darwin | Given = Charles | Authorlink = Charles Darwin | Year = 1859 | Title = On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life | Publisher = London: John Murray | URL = http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=7 }} ([[The Origin of Species]] page ii.) Retrieved on [[2007-01-05]]</ref> <blockquote> "But with regard to the material world, we can at least go so far as this-we can perceive that events are brought about not by insulated interpositions of Divine power, exerted in each particular case, but by the establishment of general laws." </blockquote> ==Birth, Childhood, Life, Death and legacy== [[Francis Galton]] recounts how ''"Whewell, wonderful to say, has fallen in love with an Ullswater beauty, Miss Marshall, and is going to marry her. She is very rich and of very good family, hence our continual conversation at Browtop is in surmises as to how Whewell would set to work to make love, he is nearly 50, she a little more than 20." [http://galton.org/cgi-bin/searchImages/search/pearson/vol1/pages/vol1_0233.htm] ==Honors and recognitions== * [[Whewell (crater)|Whewell crater]] on the [[Moon]] * The [[Gothic architecture|Gothic]] buildings known as Whewell's Court in [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] * The mineral [[whewellite]] ==See also== * [[Catastrophism]] * [[Uniformitarianism]] * [[Francis Henry Egerton, 8th Earl of Bridgewater|Earl of Bridgewater]] for other ''Bridgewater Treatise'' * [[Law of three stages]] for Whewell's opposition to Auguste Comte's [[positivism]] * [[Michael Faraday]] ==References== <references/> ==Further reading== *{{Citation |id = [[PMID]]:11832919 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11832919 |last=Heilbron |first=J L |publication-date=2002 Feb 7 |year=[[2002]] |title=Coming to terms. |volume=415 |issue=6872 |periodical=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |pages=585 |doi = 10.1038/415585a }} *{{Citation |id = [[PMID]]:11615935 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11615935 |last=Losee |first=J |publication-date=1983 Jun |year=[[1983]] |title=Whewell and Mill on the relation between philosophy of science and history of science. |volume=14 |issue=2 |periodical=Studies in history and philosophy of science |pages=113-26 }} *{{Citation |id = [[PMID]]:11622706 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11622706 |last=Metcalfe |first=J F |publication-date=1991 Mar |year=[[1991]] |title=Whewell's developmental psychologism: a Victorian account of scientific progress. |volume=22 |issue=1 |periodical=Studies in history and philosophy of science |pages=117-39 }} *{{Citation |id = [[PMID]]:11615591 |url= http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11615591 |last=Ruse |first=M |publication-date=1975 Jun |year=[[1975]] |title=Darwin's debt to philosophy: an examination of the influence of the philosophical ideas of John F. W. Herschel and William Whewell on the development of Charles Darwin's theory of evolution. |volume=6 |issue=2 |periodical=Studies in history and philosophy of science |pages=159-81 }} ==External links== {{wikiquote}} *[http://www.archive.org/details/philosinductsci01wewrich The philosophy of the inductive sciences, founded upon their history (1847)- Complete Text] *[http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2004/entries/whewell/ William Whewell] by Laura J. Snyder, from [http://plato.stanford.edu/index.html Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy] *[http://www.ecn.bris.ac.uk/het/whewell/contents.htm Six Lectures] from [http://socserv2.socsci.mcmaster.ca/~econ/ugcm/3ll3/index.html Archive for the History of Economic Thought] - papers on mathematical economics as well as a set of introductory lectures *[http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/profiles/whewell.htm William Whewell] from [http://cepa.newschool.edu/het/index.htm History of Economic Thought] *[http://janus.lib.cam.ac.uk/db/node.xsp?id=EAD%2FGBR%2F0016%2FWHEWELL Papers of William Whewell] *[http://www.trin.cam.ac.uk/index.php?pageid=172 The Master of Trinity] at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]] *{{1911}} {{start box}} {{s-aca}} {{succession box | before=[[Christopher Wordsworth (Trinity)|Christopher Wordsworth]] | title=[[Trinity College, Cambridge|Master of Trinity College, Cambridge]] | years=1841&ndash;1866 | after=[[William Hepworth Thompson]] }} {{end box}} {{Persondata |NAME=Whewell, William |ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Whewell, W. |SHORT DESCRIPTION=English philosopher & historian of science |DATE OF BIRTH=[[May 24]], [[1794]] |PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Lancaster, England|Lancaster]], [[Lancashire]], [[England]] |DATE OF DEATH=[[March 6]], [[1866]] |PLACE OF DEATH=[[Cambridge]], [[Cambridgeshire]], [[England]] }} {{DEFAULTSORT:Whewell, William}} [[Category:People from Lancaster, Lancashire]] [[Category:1794 births]] [[Category:1866 deaths]] [[Category:English Anglican priests]] [[Category:English scientists]] [[Category:English economists]] [[Category:Historians of science]] [[Category:Philosophers of science]] [[Category:Masters of Trinity College, Cambridge]] [[Category:Presidents of the Cambridge Union Society]] [[Category:English philosophers]] [[Category:Old Lancastrians]] [[Category:Second wranglers]] [[de:William Whewell]] [[es:William Whewell]] [[fr:William Whewell]] [[it:William Whewell]] [[he:ויליאם יואל]] [[nl:William Whewell]] [[ja:ウィリアム・ヒューウェル]] [[pt:William Whewell]] [[ro:William Whewell]] [[sk:William Whewell]] [[fi:William Whewell]] [[sv:William Whewell]]