Wine fault
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2008-07-09T03:40:02Z
BorgQueen
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/* Cork taint */ rm repeated link, per [[WP:CONTEXT]]
<!--This article is in Commonwealth English-->
A '''wine fault''' or '''defect''' is an unpleasant characteristic of a [[wine]] often resulting from poor [[winemaking]] practices or storage conditions, and leading to '''wine spoilage'''. Many of the compounds that cause wine faults are already naturally present in wine but at insufficient concentrations to adversely affect it. In fact, depending on [[perception]], these concentrations may impart positive characters to the wine. However when the concentration of these compounds greatly exceeds the [[sensory threshold]], they replace or obscure the [[flavour]]s and [[aroma]]s that the wine should be expressing. Ultimately the quality of the wine is reduced, making it less appealing and sometimes undrinkable.
== Oxidation ==
The [[oxidation]] of wine is perhaps the most common of wine faults, as the presence of [[oxygen]] and a [[catalyst]] are the only requirements for the process to occur. Oxidation can occur throughout the winemaking process, and even after the wine has been bottled. [[Anthocyanin]]s, [[catechin]]s, epicatechins and other [[phenols]] present in wine are those most easily oxidised <ref name=duToitW>duToit, W.J. (2005). [http://www.wynboer.co.za/recentarticles/200508oxygen.php3 Oxygen in winemaking: Part I]. WineLand. URL accessed on 2 April 2006.</ref>, which leads to a loss of colour, flavour and aroma - sometimes referred to as ''flattening''. In most cases compounds such as [[sulfur dioxide]] or [[erythorbic acid]] are added to wine by winemakers, which protect the wine from oxidation and also bind with some of the oxidation products to reduce their organoleptic effect<ref name=goode>Goode, Jamie (05/16/05). [http://www.wineint.com/storyprint.asp?sc=1810 Oxidation]. Wine International. URL accessed on 2 April 2006.</ref>. Apart from phenolic oxidation, the [[ethanol]] present within wine can also be oxidised into other compounds responsible for flavour and aroma taints.
[[Image:Oxidation of ethanol.svg|center|thumb|500px|The oxidation of ethanol]]
===Acetaldehyde===
[[Acetaldehyde]] is an intermediate product of yeast [[fermentation (wine)|fermentation]]; however, it is more commonly associated with [[ethanol]] [[oxidation]] catalysed by the enzyme [[alcohol dehydrogenase|ethanol dehydrogenase]]. Acetaldehyde production is also associated with the presence of surface film forming yeasts and bacteria, such as [[acetic acid bacteria]], which form the compound by the [[decarboxylation]] of [[pyruvate]]. The [[sensory threshold]] for acetaldehyde is 100-125 [[Kilogram#SI multiples|mg]]/[[litre|L]]. Beyond this level it imparts a ''[[sherry]]'' type character to the wine which can also be described as ''green apple'', ''sour'' and ''metallic''. Acetaldehyde [[intoxication]] is also implicated in [[hangover]]s.
===Acetic acid===
[[Acetic acid]] in wine, often referred to as volatile acidity (VA) or ''vinegar taint'', can be contributed by many wine spoilage [[yeasts]] and [[bacteria]]. This can be from either a [[by-product]] of fermentation, or due to the spoilage of finished wine. Acetic acid bacteria, such as those from the genera ''[[Acetobacter]]'' and ''[[Gluconobacter]]'' produce high levels of acetic acid. The [[sensory threshold]] for acetic acid is >700 mg/L, with concentrations greater than 1.2-1.3 g/L becoming unpleasant.
There are different opinions as to what level of volatile acidity is appropriate for higher quality wine. Although too high a concentration is sure to leave an undesirable, 'vinegar' tasting wine, some wine's acetic acid levels are developed to create a more 'complex', desirable taste.<ref>[http://www.wineint.com/story.asp?storyCode=1908 Volatile Acidity] - great article from [[Wine & Spirit]] mag </ref>
===Ethyl acetate===
[[Image:ethyl acetate2.png|right|150px|<small>Ethyl acetate</small>]]
[[Ethyl acetate]] is formed in wine by the [[esterification]] of ethanol and acetic acid. Therefore wines with high acetic acid levels are more likely to see ethyl acetate formation, but the compound does not contribute to the volatile acidity. It is a common microbial fault produced by [[wine spoilage yeast]]s, particularly ''[[Pichia anomala]]'', ''[[Kloeckera apiculata]]'', and ''[[Hanseniaspora uvarum]]''. High levels of ethyl acetate are also produced by [[lactic acid bacteria]] and acetic acid bacteria. The sensory threshold for ethyl acetate is 150-200 mg/L. Levels below this can give an added richness and sweetness, whereas levels above impart ''nail polish remover'', ''[[glue]]'', or ''[[varnish]]'' type aromas.
== Sulfur compounds ==
[[Sulfur]] is used as an [[additive]] throughout the winemaking process, primarily to stop oxidation as mentioned above but also as an [[antimicrobial]] agent. When managed properly in wine, its presence there is often undetected, however when used recklessly it can contribute to flavour and aroma taints which are very volatile and potent. Sulfur compounds typically have low sensory thresholds.
===Sulfur dioxide===
[[Image:Sulfur-dioxide-2D.svg|right|150px|<small>Sulfur dioxide</small>]]
[[Sulfur dioxide]] is a common wine additive, used for its [[antioxidant]] and [[preservative]] properties. When its use is not managed well it can be overadded, with its perception in wine reminiscent of ''matchsticks'', ''burnt rubber'', or ''mothballs''. Wines such as these are often termed ''sulfitic''.
===Hydrogen sulfide===
[[Image:Hydrogen-sulfide-2D-dimensions.svg|right|150px|<small>Hydrogen sulfide</small>]]
[[Hydrogen sulfide]] (H<sub>2</sub>S) is generally thought to be a metabolic by-product of yeast fermentation in [[nitrogen]] limited environments. It is formed when yeast ferment via the [[sulfate reduction pathway]]. Fermenting wine is often supplemented with [[diammonium phosphate]] (DAP) as a nitrogen source to prevent formation. The sensory threshold for hydrogen sulfide is 40-50 μg/L, with levels above this imparting a distinct ''rotten egg'' aroma to the wine. Hydrogen sulfide can further react with wine compounds to form mercaptans and [[disulfide]]s.
===Mercaptans===
[[Image:ethanethiol2.png|thumb|right|150px|<small>[[ethanethiol|ethyl mercaptan]]</small>]]
[[Mercaptans]] (thiols) are produced in wine by the reaction of hydrogen sulfide with other wine components such as ethanol or sulfur containing [[amino acids]], such as [[methionine]]. They can be formed if finished wine is allowed prolonged contact with the [[lees (fermentation)|lees]]. This can be prevented by [[racking]] the wine. Mercaptans have a very low sensory threshold, around 1.5 [[Kilogram#SI multiples|µg]]/[[litre|L]]<ref name=ETS1>[http://www.etslabs.com/pagetemplate/blank.asp?pageid=350 Technical Bulletin - Sulfides in Wine]. ETS Laboratories. URL accessed on 12 March 2006.</ref>, with levels above causing ''onion'', ''rubber'', and ''skunk'' type odours.
===Dimethyl sulfide===
[[Image:dimethyl sulfide structure.svg|right|140px|<small>Dimethyl sulfide</small>]]
[[Dimethyl sulfide]] (DMS) is naturally present in most wines, probably from the breakdown of sulfur containing amino acids. Like ethyl acetate, levels of DMS below the sensory threshold can have a positive effect on flavour, contributing to ''fruityness'', ''fullness'', and ''complexity''. Levels above the sensory threshold of >30 µg/L in white wines and >50 µg/L for red wines, give the wine characteristics of ''cooked cabbage'', ''canned corn'', ''asparagus'' or ''truffles''. Note: dimethyl sulfide is not formed from the oxidation of mercaptans (as had previously been reported here)...dimethyl disulfide is formed this way (from the oxidation of [[Methanethiol|methyl mercaptan]]), but dimethyl sulfide is not.
==Environmental==
===Cork taint===
[[Image:2,4,6-trichloroanisole.png|120px|right|thumb|<small>2,4,6-trichloroanisole</small>]]
{{main|Cork taint}}
Cork taint is a wine fault mostly attributed to the compound 2,4,6-trichloroanisole (TCA), although other compounds such as [[guaiacol]], [[geosmin]], 2-methylisoborneol, octen-3-ol, octen-3-one, 2,3,4,6-tetrachloroanisole, pentachloroanisole, and 2,4,6-tribromoanisole are also thought to be involved<ref name=LaMar>LaMar, Jim (09/25/02). [http://www.winepros.org/wine101/vincyc-tca.htm Cork Taint]. URL accessed on 12 March 2006.</ref>. TCA most likely originates as a [[metabolite]] of [[mould]] growth on [[chlorine]] bleached wine corks and barrels. It causes ''earthy'', ''mouldy'', and ''musty'' aromas in wine that easily mask the natural fruit aromas, making the wine very unappealing. Wines in this state are often described as ''"corked"''. As cork taint has gained a wide reputation as a wine fault, other faults are often falsely identified as it.
===Heat damage===
Heat damaged wines are often casually referred to as ''cooked'', which suggests how heat can affect a wine. The ideal storage temperature for wine is generally accepted to be 13°C (55°F). Wines that are stored at temperatures greatly higher than this will experience an increased ageing rate. Wines exposed to extreme temperatures will [[thermal expansion|thermally expand]], and may even push up between the cork and bottle and leak from the top. When opening a bottle of wine, if a track of wine is visible along the length of the cork, the cork is partially pushed out of the bottle, or wine is visible on the top of the cork while it is still in the bottle, it has most likely been heat damaged. Heat damaged wines often become oxidised, and red wines may take on a brick colour.
Reputedly, heat damage is the most widespread and common problem found in wines. It often goes unnoticed because of the prevalence of the problem, consumers don't know it's possible, and most often would just chalk the problem to poor quality or other factors.
===Lightstrike===
Lightstruck wines are those that have had excessive exposure to [[ultraviolet]] light, particularly in the range 325 to 450 nm<ref name=drouhin>Drouhin, R.J. (01/23/98) [http://www.drouhin.com/wineviti/glasses.html Bottle Glass]. URL Accessed 3 April 2006</ref>. Very delicate wines, such as [[Champagne (wine)|Champagne]]s, are generally worst affected, with the fault causing a ''wet cardboard'' or ''wet wool'' type flavour and aroma. Red wines rarely becomes lightstruck because the phenolic compounds present within the wine protects it. Lightstrike is thought to be caused by sulfur compounds such as dimethyl sulfide. In France lightstrike is known as "''goûts de lumière''", which translates to ''tastes of light''. The fault explains why wines are generally bottled in coloured glass, which blocks the ultraviolet light, and why wine should be stored in dark environments.
===Ladybug taint===
Some insects present in the grapes at harvest inevitably end up in the press and for the most part are inoffensive. Others, notably types of [[ladybug]]s, release unpleasant volatile compounds as a defensive mechanism when disturbed. In sufficient quantities this can affect the bouquet and taste of wines. With an olfactory detection threshold of a few ppb, the principal active compounds are methoxypyrazines, or just pyrazines, that are perceived as rancid [[peanut butter]], bitter herbaceous, green [[bell pepper]] or cat urine. This is also a naturally occurring compound in Sauvignon grapes and so ladybugs taint has been known to make Rieslings taste like [[Sauvignon blanc|Sauvignon Blanc]].
==Microbiological==
===''Brettanomyces'' (''Dekkera'')===
[[Image:Brettanomyces.jpg|right|thumb|160px|<small>''[[Brettanomyces]]''</small>]]
{{main|Brettanomyces}}
The yeast ''[[Brettanomyces]]'' produces an array of [[metabolite]]s when growing in wine, some of which are volatile [[phenol]]ic compounds. Together these compounds are often referred to as ''"Brettanomyces character"'', or simply "Brett". The main constituents are listed below, with their sensory threshold and common sensory descriptors:
*'''[[4-Ethylphenol]]''' (>140 µg/L): Band-aids, barnyard, horse stable, antiseptic
*'''[[4-ethylguaiacol]]''' (>600 µg/L): Bacon, spice, cloves, smoky
*'''[[3-Methylbutanoic acid|isovaleric acid]]''': Sweaty saddle, cheese, rancidity
===Geosmin===
[[Image:Geosmin.png|130px|right]]
[[Geosmin]] is a compound with a very distinct ''earthy'', ''musty'', ''beetroot'', even ''turnip'' flavour and aroma and has an extremely low sensory threshold of down to 10 parts per trillion. Its presence in wine is usually derived as metabolite from the growth of filamentous [[Actinobacteria|actinomycetes]] such as ''[[Streptomyces]]'', and [[mold|mould]]s such as ''[[Botritis cinerea]]'' and ''Penicillium expansum'', on grapes. Wines affected by but not attributed to geosmins are often thought to have earthy properties due to [[terroir]]<ref name=kennel>Kennel, Florence (14/12/05). [http://www.decanter.com/news/60674.html Bordeaux boffin solves geosmin conundrum]. Decanter.com. URL accessed on 2 April 2006.</ref>. The geosmin fault occurs worldwide and has been found in recent vintages of red wines from [[Beaujolais]], [[Bordeaux]], [[Burgundy]] and the [[Loire]] in France. Geosmin is also thought to be a contributing factor in [[cork taint]].
===Lactic acid bacteria===
[[Lactic acid bacteria]] have a useful role in winemaking converting malic acid to lactic acid in [[malolactic fermentation]]. However after this function has completed the bacteria may still be present within the wine, where they can metabolise other compounds and produce wine faults. Wines that have not undergone malolactic fermentation may be contaminated with lactic acid bacteria, leading to refermentation of the wine with it becoming [[turbidity|turbid]], ''swampy'', and slightly [[effervescence|effervescent]] or ''spritzy''. This can be avoided by sterile filtering wine directly before bottling. Lactic acid bacteria can also be responsible for other wine faults such as those below.
====Bitterness taint====
[[Image:Acrolein-skeletal.png|right|120px|thumb|<small>Acrolein</small>]]
Bitterness taint or ''amertume'' is rather uncommon and is produced by certain strains of bacteria from the genera ''[[Pediococcus]]'', ''[[Lactobacillus]]'', and ''[[Oenococcus]]''. It begins by the degradation of [[glycerol]], a compound naturally found in wine at levels of 5-8 g/L, via a [[dehydratase]] enzyme to ''3-hydroxypropionaldehyde''. During ageing this is further dehydrated to [[acrolein]] which reacts with the [[anthocyanin]]s and other phenols present within the wine to form the taint<ref name=duToitM>duToit, M., Pretorius, I.S. (2000). “Microbial spoilage and preservation of wine: Using weapons from nature's own arsenal - A review”. South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture 21: 74-96.</ref>. As red wines contain high levels of anthocyanins they are generally more susceptible.
====Diacetyl====
[[Image:diacetyl structure.svg|130px|right|thumb|<small>Diacetyl</small>]]
[[Diacetyl]] in wine is produced by [[lactic acid bacteria]], mainly ''[[Oenococcus oeni]]''. In low levels it can impart positive ''nutty'' or ''caramel'' characters, however at levels above 5 mg/L it creates an intense ''buttery'' or ''butterscotch'' flavour, where it is perceived as a flaw. The sensory threshold for the compound can vary depending on the levels of certain wine components, such as sulfur dioxide. It can be produced as a metabolite of [[citric acid]] when all of the [[malic acid]] has been consumed. Diacetyl rarely taints wine to levels where it becomes undrinkable<ref name=gibson>Gibson, George; Farkas, Mike [http://www.bcawa.ca/winemaking/flaws.htm Flaws and Faults in Wine]. URL accessed on 12 March 2006.</ref>.
====Geranium taint====
[[Image:2-ethoxy-3,5-hexadiene.svg|200px|right|thumb|<small>2-ethoxy-3,5-hexadiene</small>]]
Geranium taint, as the name suggests, is a flavour and aroma taint in wine reminiscent of [[pelargonium|geranium]] leaves. The compound responsible is ''2-ethoxyhexa-3,5-diene'', which has a low sensory threshold concentration of 0.1 mg/L<ref name=huhn>Hühn, T; Sponholz, W.R. and Pulver, D. (1999). [http://www.beverages.ch/service/Microorganisms.PDF The influence of microorganisms in winemaking]. (PDF) URL accessed on 2 April 2006.</ref>. In wine it is formed during the [[metabolism]] of [[potassium sorbate]] by [[lactic acid bacteria]]. Potassium sorbate is sometimes added to wine as a [[preservative]] against yeast, however its use is generally kept to a minimum due to the possibility of the taint developing. The production of the taint begins with the conversion of [[sorbic acid]] to the alcohol ''sorbinol''. The alcohol is then [[isomerisation|isomerised]] in the presence of acid to ''3,5-hexadiene-2-ol'', which is then esterified with ethanol to form ''2-ethoxy-3,5-hexadiene''<ref name=huhn/>. As ethanol is necessary for the conversion, the geranium taint is not usually found in [[must]].
====Mannitol====
[[Image:Mannitol.svg|150px|thumb|right|<small>Mannitol</small>]]
[[Mannitol]] is a [[polyol]], and in wine it is produced by [[heterofermentative]] lactic acid bacteria, such as ''[[Lactobacillus brevis]]'', by the [[redox|reduction]] of [[fructose]]. Its perception is often complicated as it generally exists in wine alongside other faults, but it is usually described as [[viscous]], [[ester]]-like combined with a sweet and irritating finish<ref name=duToitM/>. Mannitol is usually produced in wines that undergo malolactic fermentation with a high level of [[residual sugar]]s still present.
====Ropiness====
Ropiness is manifested as an increase in [[viscosity]] and a ''slimey'' or ''fatty'' mouthfeel of a wine. In France the fault is known as "''graisse''", which translates to ''fat''. The problem stems from the production of [[dextrin]]s and [[polysaccharide]]s by certain lactic acid bacteria, particularly of the genera ''[[Leuconostoc]]'' and ''[[Pediococcus]]''.
===Mousiness===
[[Image:1-(3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridin-2-yl)-ethanone.svg|right|thumb|150px|<small>''2-acetyl-3,4,5,6-<br>tetrahydropyridine''</small>]]
Mousiness is a wine fault most often attributed to ''Brettanomyces'' but can also originate from the [[lactic acid bacteria]] ''[[Lactobacillus brevis]]'', ''[[Lactobacillus fermentum]]'', and ''[[Lactobacillus hilgardii]]''<ref name=duToitM/>. The compounds responsible are [[lysine]] derivatives, mainly;
*[[2-acetyl-3,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine]]
*[[2-acetyl-1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyridine]]
*[[2-ethyltetrahydropyridine]]<ref name=marias>Marais, Johann [http://www.wynboer.co.za/recentarticles/0299nitrogen.php3 Flavourful nitrogen containing wine constituents]. Wynboer. URL accessed on 12 March 2006.</ref>
*[[2-acetyl-1-pyrrolene]]
The taints are not volatile at the [[pH]] of wine, and therefore not obvious as an aroma. However, when mixed with the neutral pH of saliva they can become very apparent on the palate<ref name=gawell>Gawell, Richard [http://www.aromadictionary.com/articles/mousey_article.html Somellier, A Mouse Must Have Wee'd in My Wine!]. aromadictionary.com. URL accessed on 12 March 2006.</ref>, especially at the back of the mouth, as ''mouse cage'' or ''mouse urine''.
===Refermentation===
Refermentation, sometimes called [[secondary fermentation]], is caused by yeasts refermenting the [[residual sugar]] present within bottled wine. It occurs when [[sweetness of wine|sweet wines]] are bottled in non-sterile conditions, allowing the presence of microorganisms. The most common yeast to referment wine is the standard wine fermentation yeast ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', but has also been attributed to ''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]'' and ''[[Zygosaccharomyces bailii]]''<ref name=duToitM/>. The main issues associated with the fault include [[turbidity]] (from yeast [[biomass]] production), excess ethanol production (may violate [[wine label|labelling]] laws), slight [[carbonation]], and some coarse odours. Refermentation can be prevented by bottling wines dry (with residual sugar levels <1.0g/L), sterile filtering wine prior to bottling, or adding preservative chemicals such as [[dimethyl dicarbonate]]. The [[Portuguese wine]] style known as "[[vinho verde|vinhos verdes]]" relies on this secondary fermentation in bottle to impart a slight spritziness to the wine.
==See also==
*[[Oenology]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://people.ok.ubc.ca/neggers/Chem422A/Organoleptic%20Defects%20in%20Wine.pdf Organoleptic defects in wine] <small>([[PDF (Adobe)|PDF]] document)</small>
* [http://www.beverages.ch/service/Microorganisms.PDF The influence of microorganisms in winemaking] <small>([[PDF (Adobe)|PDF]] document)</small>
[[Category:Wine tasting]]
[[Category:Oenology]]
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