Wolf hunting 2246190 move=:edit= 226024155 2008-07-16T14:15:09Z Dark hyena 2141662 /* Eastern Europe */ [[Image:Caccia-lupo.jpg|thumbnail|240px|''Caccia al Lupo'', 16th century [[Florentine]] tapestry in the [[Uffizi Gallery]]]] '''Wolf hunting''' is the practice of hunting [[Gray Wolf|grey wolves]] ''(Canis lupus)'' or other [[lupine]] animals. Wolves are mainly hunted for sport, for their skins, to protect [[livestock]], and in some rare cases to protect humans. Wolves have been actively hunted since 12,000 to 13,000 years ago, when they first began to pose threats to livestock vital for the survival of [[Neolithic]] human communities.<ref name="WOLVES" /> The hunting of grey wolves, while originally actively endorsed in many countries, has become a controversial issue in some nations. Opponents see it as [[cruelty to animals|cruel]], unnecessary and based on misconceptions, while proponents argue that it is vital for the [[Conservation movement|conservation]] of game herds and as [[pest control]].<ref name="Prohunt">{{cite web|date=2000|title=Game board says yes to aerial shooting of wolves|publisher= alaskawolves.org|url=http://alaskawolves.org/Blog/DF21F183-DA44-432D-8F73-D9C8DC0BE859_files/Alaska%20Peninsula%20wolf%20control,%20FDNM,%20ADN.pdf|accessdate=2008-04-23}}</ref> ==History== ===Western Europe=== In A.D. 46-120, the first wolf bounty was reportedly opened when [[Solon]] of [[Athens]] offered five silver [[drachmas]] to any hunter for killing any male wolf, and one for every female.<ref>http://www.wildrockiesalliance.org/issues/wolves/articles/history_of_bounty_hunting.pdf.</ref><ref name="WOLVES">{{cite book | author= L. David Mech & Luigi Boitani | url = http://www.amazon.com/Wolves-Behavior-Conservation-David-Mech/dp/0226516962 | title=Wolves: Behaviour, Ecology and Conservation | year=2001 | pages= p 448 | id= ISBN 0226516962 }}</ref> In [[England]] of 950, [[King Athelstan]] imposed an annual tribute of 300 wolf skins on [[Welsh people|Welsh]] king [[Hywel Dda]], an imposition which was maintained until the [[Norman conquest of England]].<ref name="FB">{{cite book | author = [[Stefan Buczacki|Buczacki, Stefan]] | title = Fauna Britanica| year = 2005 | pages = pp.528 | id = ISBN 0600613925 }}</ref> The [[Norman dynasty|Norman]] kings (reigning from 1066 to 1152 A.D.) employed servants as wolf hunters and many held lands granted on condition they fulfilled this duty.<ref name="NK" /> There were no restrictions or penalties in the hunting of wolves, except in royal game reserves, under the reasoning that the temptation for a commoner to shoot a deer there was too great<ref name="Bloodsport">{{cite book | author = Griffin, Emma|url = http://www.amazon.co.uk/Blood-Sport-Hunting-Britain-Since/dp/0300116284/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203776537&sr=1-1 | title = Blood Sport: Hunting in Britain Since 1066 | year = 2007 | pages = pp.296 | id = ISBN 0300116284 }}</ref>. King [[Edward I of England|Edward I]] who reigned from 1272 to 1307 ordered the total extermination of all wolves in his kingdom and personally employed one Peter Corbet, with instructions to destroy wolves in the counties of [[Gloucestershire]], [[Herefordshire]], [[Worcestershire]], [[Shropshire]] and [[Staffordshire]], areas near the [[Welsh Marches]] where wolves were more common than in the southern areas of England.<ref name="NK" /> [[James I of Scotland]] passed a law in 1427 requiring 3 wolf hunts a year between April 25th to the 1st of August, coinciding with the wolf's cubbing season.<ref name="FB" /> The wolf became extinct in England during the reign of [[Henry VII of England|Henry VII]] (1485-1509). It is known that wolves survived in [[Scotland]] up until the 18th century.<ref name="NK" /> [[Mary I of Scotland]] is known to have hunted wolves in the forest of [[Atholl]] in 1563.<ref name="FB" /> The last wolf in Scotland was supposedly killed in 1743, by an old man named [[Clan MacQueen|MacQueen]] of Pall-à-Chrocain in the [[Findhorn]] Valley of [[Morayshire]]<ref name="NK">{{cite web | url = http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/disappearance_of_wolves.html | title = The Disappearance of Wolves in the British Isles | work = Ivy Stanmore | publisher = Wolf Song of Alaska| accessdate = 2007-09-27}}</ref> [[Ireland]] throughout most of the first half of the 17th century had a substantial wolf population of not less than 400 and maybe as high as 1000 wolves at any one time. Although the Irish hunted wolves, it is evident from documentary data that they did not see the same need as the English to exterminate the wolves. Although wolves were perceived as threats, they were nonetheless seen as natural parts of the Irish landscapes. The level of rewards and bounties established by [[Oliver Cromwell]]'s regime after the [[Cromwellian conquest of Ireland]] attracted a few professional wolf hunters to Ireland, mostly from England. Politically, the prospect of numbers of armed Irish roaming around the country hunting wolves was not acceptable, given the ongoing conflict between the Irish and the new English settlers, so it was seen as much safer for the English authorities to encourage men from their own country to deal with the wolf problem. Wolves were exterminated from Ireland in the late 1700s, most likely 1786, <ref name="IRISHWOLVES">{{cite web | url = http://www.ucd.ie/gsi/pdf/33-2/lupus.pdf| title = A geographical perspective on the decline and extermination of the Irish wolf canis lupus | work = Kieran R. Hickey | publisher = Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway | accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> [[Image:Louvetier crest.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Crest of the [[Wolfcatcher Royal]], Marquis de Flamarens]] In 9th century France, [[Charlemagne]] founded an elite corps of crown funded officials called "[[Luparii]]", whose purpose was to control wolf populations in [[France]] during the Middle Ages.<ref name="Loups en France">{{cite web | url = http://www.loup.org/spip/L-histoire-du-loup-en-France,400.html | title = L’histoire du loup en France: Chronologie d’une destruction| work = Ivy Stanmore | publisher = Loup.org| accessdate = 2008-02-28}}</ref> Luparii were responsible for the initial reduction of wolf populations in France, which would become decimated in later centuries.<ref name="loup" /> The office of luparii is today known as the [[Wolfcatcher Royal]]. On 9 August 1787 the office was dissolved due to financing issues during the [[French Revolution]] but was reinstated twelve years later by [[Napoleon]].<ref name="Loups en France" /> After the Revolution ended, wolf hunting was no longer an activity reserved for the aristocracy. Wolves could be killed for monetary rewards equivalent to a month's pay. From 1818-1829, 14,000 wolves were killed each year. This high kill rate coincided with the increased distribution of [[flintlock]]s. At the dawn of the 19th century, there were up to 5000 wolves in France, a number which was reduced to half that amount by 1850. By 1890, the wolf population had been reduced to 1000 animals, and further fell to 500 in 1900 due to increased usage of [[strychnine]]. The [[First World War]] allowed wolves some respite, though by the time it ended, the population was estimated to be between 150-200 animals. The last confirmed French wolf kill occurred in 1937.<ref name="Loups en France" /> With the extinction of the wolf in metropolitan France, the office of Wolfcatcher Royal was modified in 1971 and now serves an administrative function regulating vermin and maintaining healthy wildlife populations.<ref name="loup">{{cite book | author = Thompson, Richard H.|url = http://www.amazon.com/Wolf-Hunting-France-Reign-Louis-XV/dp/0889467463| title = Wolf-Hunting in France in the Reign of Louis XV: The Beast of the Gévaudan| year = 1991 | pages = pp.367 | id = ISBN 0889467463}}</ref> Wolf bounties were regularly paid in [[Italy]] during the 12th and 13th centuries and as recently as 1950's.<ref name="WOLVES" /> [[Gian Galeazzo Visconti]] himself offered ten Imperial currencies for every wolf killed.<ref name="caccia">{{cite book | author = Baldi, Gianni|url = | title = Il Libro della Caccia| year = 1967 | pages = pp.316 | id = }}</ref> Italian wolf hunters lacked the organisation or determination of their French counterparts, having not formed any special hunting teams. Wolves were exterminated from the [[alps]] in the 1800s, though they were never fully exterminated in the peninsula.<ref name="WOLVES" /> In 19th century [[Spain]], the [[Principality of Asturias]] passed an act between March and December 1816 paying out bounties for the death of 76 adult and 414 young wolves at 160 [[reales]] for an adult wolf and 32 for a wolf cub. The hunting of wolves represented a considerable source of wealth for local populations, with the "lobero" or wolf-hunter being a respected county figure.<ref>[http://www.iberianature.com/material/wolf.html Iberian wolf - Wolves in Spain<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> [[Sweden]]'s first wolf bounty was opened in 1647. Hundreds of [[Sami people|Sami]] extirpated wolves in organised drives. In the 1960s, wolf numbers rapidly declined with the onset of snow mobiles used for hunting. Sweden's last wolf was killed in 1966, after which, the species was declared legally protected and eventually recolonised the area.<ref name="WOLVES" /> [[Norway]] followed a similair pattern as Sweden, with its last wolf being killed in 1976, before becoming being protected and eventually recolonizing the area.<ref name="WOLVES" /> === Eastern Europe === [[Image:Okhota na volka.jpg|thumb|A Russian wolf hunt, as portrayed on ''The wolf hunting'' by [[Nikolai Sverchkov]]. 1862.]] In [[Czarist Russia]], before the [[Emancipation reform of 1861]], wolf hunting was done solely by authorised firearm holders, usually police, soldiers, rich landowners or nobles. [[Serf]]s began hunting wolves after their emancipation in 1861, though rarely with success, as civilian firearms were highly expensive, and the cheaper ones were usually primitive and unable to bare the heavy ammunition necessary to kill wolves. Upon learning of the frequency of attacks on livestock and humans, the [[Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs|Czarist Ministry of the Interior]] sent agents to Western Europe in order to learn how the people there dealt with wolf problems. Upon returning, the Ministry of Internal Affairs developed a plan in 1846 to deal with wolves involving the opening of wolf bounties and appointment of government hunters. Each hunter was given jurisdiction to hunt in one district, with more than one for large areas. Hunters were given 3 [[Russian ruble|rubles]] for each male wolf killed and 1.5 for each cub, with a tail presented as proof. Each hunter would receive an annual salary of 60 rubles a year, provided he kill 15 adults and 30 cubs a year. Peasant hunters however were rarely rewarded, due to corrupt bureaucrats stealing the money. In 1858, after paying $1 250 000 for over a million wolves in Central Russia, officials became suspicious, and discovered that some hunters bought wolf pelts for low prices, cut them up and handed them to magistrates as wolf tails. In the latter years of the 19th century, Russian hunting societies began an energetic campaign against wolves. In 1897, members of the [[Moscow Hunting Society]] killed their first 1000 wolves, though the number of professional wolf hunters at the time was rather low.<ref name="Graves" /> After the [[October Revolution]], the newly formed [[Soviet]] government worked heavily to eradicate wolves and other predators during an extensive land reclamation program.<ref name="RUSWH">{{cite web | url = http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/wolf_russia_history.html| title = ''Hunting A History of Wolves in Russia'' | work = Evgeni Okhtin| publisher = Wolf Song of Alaska | accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> In 1917, [[Lenin]] himself promised his followers that if the Communists won power they would hunt down the last wolf.<ref name="MONGWOLF">{{cite web | url = http://www.mongoliatoday.com/issue/5/wolf_jasper.html| title = ''Hunting Outlaw or Hunting Wolves'' | work = Jasper Becker | publisher = Mongolia Today| accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> Government officials instructed the [[Red army]] to exterminate predators on sight; a project that was carried out very efficiently. During [[Eastern Front (World War II)|the Eastern Front]], when the Russian government focused its attention on repelling the [[Nazi]] invasion, wolf populations were given some respite, and actually increased, though after [[Germany]]'s defeat, wolf exterminations resumed. With the end of the war and the onset of aerial hunting, the USSR destroyed 42,300 wolves in 1945, 62,700 wolves in 1946, 58,700 wolves in 1947, 57,600 in 1948, and 55,300 in 1949. From 1950 to 1954, an average of 50,000 wolves were killed annually. In 1966, wolves had been successfully exterminated in 30 [[oblast]]s of the [[RSFSR]]. During this time, wolf depredations had dropped by a factor of ten. However, with the publishing of a [[Russian language|Russian]] translation of [[Farley Mowatt]]'s [[fictional]] book ''[[Never Cry Wolf]]'', wolf hunts decreased in popularity. Amid public outcry, Czarist and Soviet records of wolf attacks on both livestock and people were ignored and wolf hunts decreased in number, allowing wolves to multiply. 15, 900 wolves were reportedly culled from the [[RSFSR]] in 1978, compared to 7900 two years prior. With an increase in population, twice as many wolves were culled in the 1980s than in the prior decade.<ref name="Graves" /> Wolves became extinct in [[Wrangel Island]] in the early 1980s.<ref name="Russki">{{cite web | url = http://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/animals/features/284feature1.shtml | title = In defence of Russia's wolves | work = | publisher = bbc.co.uk| accessdate = 2008-04-22}}</ref> In 1984, the RSFSR had over 2000 wolf hunting brigades consisting of 15, 000 hunters who killed 16 400 wolves.<ref name="Graves" /> Overall, the Soviet Union culled over 1 500 000 wolves for a cost of 150, 000, 000 rubles on bounties alone. With the [[collapse of the Soviet Union]], many wolf bounties were lowered or dropped altogether.<ref name="Graves" /> In the [[Lithuanian SSR]], the hunting of wolves was formally permitted all year long with killing cubs in their dens and payment of monetary rewards. The number of wolves in those times in Lithuania fell to about 20-40 individuals.<ref>http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Regions/Baltic/Budrys%20wolf%20lynx%20in%20Lithuania.pdf</ref> In [[Communist Romania]], up to 2,800 wolves were killed between 1955-1965.<ref name="WOLVES" /> During the reign of [[Nicolae Ceauşescu]], a reward equal to a quarter of a month's pay was offered to rangers killing wolf cubs. Full-grown wolves killed by any method at all resulted in as much as a half-month's pay.<ref name="AP">{{cite web | url = http://www.anglianwolf.com/d_front_page/articles/conservation/carpathians2003/carpathians2003.htm | title = Wolves in the Carpathians | work = Mary Gray | publisher = Anglican Wolf Society | accessdate = 2007-06-15}}</ref> In [[Croatia]], between 1986 to 2004, 115 wolf deaths were recorded, of which 54% were due to shooting. During that period, the number of dead wolves found ranged from 0-15 annually. The lowest kill rates occurred in the late 1980s, early 1990s, coinciding with the start of the [[Croatian War of Independence]] in the former state.<ref>[http://www.life-vuk.hr/wolf_in_croatia.htm Conservation and management of wolves in Croatia<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> === Asia === In [[India]], [[Hindus]] traditionally considered the hunting of wolves, even dangerous ones as [[taboo]], for fear of causing a bad harvest. The [[Santals]] however considered them fair game, as with every other forest dwelling animal.<ref name="Children">{{cite book | author = Maclean, Charles | title = The Wolf Children| year = 1980 | pages = pp.336 | id = ISBN 0140050531}}</ref> In 1876, in the North-West Provinces and [[Bihar]] State of [[British India]], 2,825 wolves were killed in response to 721 fatal attacks on humans.<ref name="Asia">{{cite book | author = Knight, John | title = Wildlife in Asia: Cultural Perspectives | year = 2004 | pages = pp.280 | id = ISBN 978-0-7007-1332-5 }}</ref> Two years later, 2,600 wolves were killed in response to attacks leaving 624 humans dead.<ref name="maneaters">{{cite book | author = Bright, Michael| url = http://www.amazon.com/Man-Eaters-Michael-Bright/dp/0312981562 | title = Man-Eaters| year = 2002 | pages = pp.304 | id = ISBN 0312981562}}</ref> Wolf exterminations remained a priority in the NWP and [[Awadh]] through to the 1920s, due to the fact that wolves were reportedly killing more people than any other predator in the region. Female cubs were bountied for 12 [[Indian anna]]s, while males for 8. Higher rewards of 5 [[rupee]]s for each adult and one for each cub were favoured in [[Jaunpur, Uttar Pradesh|Jaunpur]]. In [[Gorakhpur]], where human fatalities were highest in summer, the reward for an adult wolf was 4 rupees, with 3 for a cub. Acts of fraud were quite common, with some bounty hunters presenting [[golden jackal]]s or simply exhuming the bodies of bountied wolves and presenting them to unsuspecting magistrates for rewards. Overall, it is thought that up to 100,000 wolves were killed in British India between 1871-1916.<ref name="Asia" /> [[Image:Honshu-wolf statue.jpg|200 px|thumb|Monument erected in [[Nara Prefecture]], [[Japan]], dedicated to the last wolf to be killed in Japan on the 23rd of January 1905]] Before the onset of the [[Meiji restoration]] period in 1868, wolves had a benign rather than noxious place in [[Japan]]ese culture and folklore. Wolves were however occasionally hunted. Wolf bounties (''shōkin'') first appeared in [[Morioka]] where horse predation by wolves was frequent. Domain lords would pay 700 [[Japanese mon (currency)|mon]] for males, and 900 for females, though peasants received much less.<ref name="AINU" /> Wolves in Japan became extinct during the Meiji restoration period, an extermination known as ''ōkami no kujo''. The wolf was deemed a threat to ranching which the Meiji government promoted at the time, and targeted via a bounty system and a direct chemical extermination campaign inspired by the similair contemporary American campaign. Starting August 1875, the [[Iwate Prefecture]] government offered bounties (''shōreikin'') of 7[[Japanese yen|¥]] for male wolves and 8 for females. In 1878 in [[Sapporo]], it was decided to set higher bounties for wolves than bears in order to further motivate the ethnic [[Ainu people]] into killing wolves, which were once considered sacred to them.<ref name="AINU" /> Hokkaido experienced significant development during this period and the Hokkaido Wolf also suffered from resulting environmental disruption.<ref>Brett L. Walker, [http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/eh/9.2/walker.html "Meiji Modernization, Scientific: Agriculture, and the Destruction of Japan's Hokkaido Wolf,"] ''Environmental History'', Vol. 9, No. 2, 2004.</ref> The last Japanese wolf was a male killed on the [[23 January]] [[1905]] near Washikaguchi (now called Higashi Yoshiro). The carcass was bought by a man working for the Duke of Bedford, and was subsequently put on display in the British Museum of Natural History.<ref name="AINU" /> In the [[Mongolian People's Republic]], the [[Mongolian People's Revolutionary Party]] organised two national wolf hunting weeks, one in March and another in December. Anyone who killed a wolf and presented a pair of ears as proof was rewarded with a sheep and some felt. Each May, the government commanded the populace to scour the countryside for wolf lairs in an effort to exterminate wolf cubs. When the inhabitants of a district believed it had destroyed its last wolf, the local government would proclaim a public holiday. Records show that up to 5,000 wolves were taken annually in the early 1930s.<ref name="MONGWOLF" /> 4000-4500 wolves were killed annually in Mongolia in 1976.<ref name="Graves" /> In the [[Kazakh SSR]], some 1,000 professional hunters killed thousands of the wolves yearly to collect government bounties. In 1988, just before the Soviet economy collapsed, the hunters killed 16,000 wolves.<ref name="KAZ">{{cite web | url = http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueID=115&articleID=1473 | title = Is Kazakhstan Home to the World’s Largest Wolf Population? | work = Christopher Pala | publisher = National Wildlife Federation | accessdate = 2007-09-28}}</ref> ===North America=== In the majority of the [[hunter-gatherer]] societies of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas, wolves were usually only killed for body parts used in rituals, or to stop them raiding food caches or [[horse]]s,<ref name="SAM" /> though some tribes would raid wolf dens for pups, which were considered a delicacy.<ref name="Graves" /> Active hunting of wolves was rare because many tribes believed that such an act would cause game animals to disappear or bring retribution from other wolves. When the [[Kwakiutl]] killed a wolf, the animal would be laid out on a blanket and have portions of its flesh eaten by the perpetrators, who would express regret at the act before burying it. The [[Ahtna]] would take the dead wolf to a hut, where it would be propped in a sitting position with a banquet made by a shaman set before it. When men from certain Eskimo tribes killed a wolf, they would walk around their houses four times, expressing regret and abstaining from sexual relations with their wives for four days.<ref name="SAM" /> [[Image:Wolfer.jpg|thumb|250 px|A [[Wolfers|wolfer]] with [[wolfhound]]s near Amedon, [[North Dakota]], 1904]] After the [[European colonization of the Americas]], the first American wolf bounty was passed by the [[Massachusetts Bay Colony]] on [[November 9]] [[1630]]. Further wolf bounties opened in [[Jamestown, Virginia]] on [[September 4]] [[1632]] and in other colonies. Payments to white settlers included cash, tobacco, wine and corn, while Native Americans were given blankets and trinkets. A New Jersey law started in 1697 stated that any [[Christian]] who brought a wolf carcass to a magistrate would have been paid 20 [[shillings]], while a Native American or black would have been paid half that much. It later became customary for Native Americans to provide two wolf pelts a year without payment. In 1688, a Virginia law abolished the requirement of tribute in wolves to be paid in accordance to the number of hunters in each tribe, demanding 725 hunters to kill 145 wolves a year.<ref name="SAM" /> In the 19th century, as the settlers began increasingly moving west in pursuit of more land for [[ranching]], wolves were becoming increasingly more hunted as threats to livestock. In 1818, a “War of Extermination” against wolves and bears was declared in [[Ohio]]. [[Iowa]] began its own wolf bounty in 1858, with [[Wisconsin]] and [[Colorado]] following suit in 1865 and 1869. Wolf pelts soon began to increase in demand as [[American beaver]]s began to [[scarce]]n from overtrapping. In the 1830s, a wolf pelt was worth only $1, doubling in the 1850s.<ref name="SAM" /> Records of the upper Missouri outfit of the American Fur Trading Company indicate that 20 wolf pelts were shipped downriver in 1850, with 3,000 being shipped three years later.<ref name="SAM" /> Civilians turned [[Bounty hunter]]s known as “[[Wolfers]]” began killing ungulates in large numbers as bait, poisoning the meat in hopes of attracting unsuspecting wolves. It is estimated that by the 1870s, 100,000 wolves were killed annually. In 1915, federal authorities began a poisoning program of their own, resulting in the extinction of wolves in [[Yellowstone National Park]] in 1926.<ref>[http://www.angelfire.com/mi4/polcrt/NewEngTimeline.html Courtly Lives - New England Timeline<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><ref>[http://www.all-creatures.org/aw/art-wolfnation.html Wolf Nation: From the Brink of Oblivion and Back Again? - Articles from Animals in the Wild: Wildlife Photography by Jim Robertson<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> American wolf hunts peaked in the 1920s-30s, when up to 21,000 were killed annually.<ref name="WOLVES" /> After World War II, wolves were seen less as varmints and more as big game trophy animals.<ref name="SAM" /> The first [[Canada|Canadian]] wolf bounty was offered in 1793 in [[Ontario]] and [[Quebec]]. Wolves became rare in Eastern Canada by the 1870s, becoming extinct in [[New Brunswick]] by 1880, in [[Nova Scotia]] by 1900 and had disappeared from [[Newfoundland and Labrador|Newfoundland]] by 1913. Full-scale eradication programs did not peak in western and northern Canada until the 1950s, when resource development brought more people into originally sparsely populated wilderness.<ref name="Canada"> {{cite web | url = http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/two_countries.html | title = Wolf Song of Alaska: A Tale of Two Countries | author = Amanda Hillwood | publisher = Wolf song of Alaska | accessdate = 2008-05-04}}</ref> A government backed wolf extermination programme was initiated in 1948 after serious declines in [[caribou]] herds in the [[Northern Territories]] and a [[rabies]] concern due to wolves migrating south near populated areas. 39,960 [[cyanide]] guns, 106,100 cyanide cartridges and 628,000 strychnine pellets were distributed. Up to 17,500 wolves were poisoned in Canada between 1955 to 1961. In the mid-50s, wolf bounties were dropped in the western provinces in favour of hiring provincial hunters. Quebec's wolf bounties ended in 1971 and Ontario in 1972. Overall, 20,000 wolves were bountied between 1935-1955 in British Columbia, 12,000 between 1942-1955 in Alberta and 33,000 between 1947-1971 in Ontario.<ref name="SAM" /> Unlike wolf populations in the Lower 48 states which declined steadily as settlers moved west, the Canadian wolf population fluctuated between growth and decline, largely due to the fact that the human population in Canada never reached the same level as in the Lower 48, thus leaving large areas of land free for the wolves.<ref>[http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/two_countries.html Wolf Song of Alaska: A Tale of Two Countries<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Unlike European wolf hunts which were usually reserved for the [[nobility]], North American wolf hunts were partaken by ordinary citizens, nearly all of them possessing firearms, thus the extermination of wolves in the lower 48 states was carried out in far less time than in Europe.<ref name="AQ"> {{cite web | url = http://www.aws.vcn.com/wolf_attacks_on_humans.html | title = Wolf attacks on humans | author = Mader, TR | publisher = Abundant Wildlife Society of North America | accessdate = 2007-05-31}}</ref> ==Wolf hunting today== ===Europe=== In [[Norway]], in 2001, the Norwegian Government authorised a controversial wolf cull on the grounds that the animals were overpopulating and were responsible for the killing of more than 600 sheep in 2000. The Norwegian authorities, whose original plans to kill 20 wolves were scaled down amid public outcry.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/1165501.stm BBC News | EUROPE | Snow hampers Norway wolf cull<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In 2005, the Norwegian government proposed another cull, with the intent of exterminating 25% of Norway's wolf population. A recent study of the wider Scandinavian wolf population concluded there were 120 individuals at the most, causing great concern on the genetic health of the population.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4194963.stm BBC NEWS | Science/Nature | Norway to kill 25% of its wolves<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Under the [[Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats|Berne Convention]] wolves in France are listed as an endangered species, and killing them is illegal, though official culls are permitted to protect farm animals as long as there is no threat to the species in its entirety.<ref>[http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/gray_wolf_europe_cull.htm Wolf Song of Alaska: France's Bardot Demands EU Action on Wolf Cull<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Though wolf populations have increased in [[Ukraine]], wolves remain unprotected there and can be hunted year-round by permit-holders.<ref name="KAZ" /> [[Bulgaria]] considers the wolf a pest animal and there is a bounty equivalent to two weeks average wages on their heads.<ref name="UKWCT">{{cite web | url = http://ukwolf.org/uk-wolf/71 | title = Bulgaria | work = | publisher = | accessdate = 2007-09-10}}</ref> With the exception of specimens in nature reserves, wolves in [[Belarus]] are largely unprotected. They are designated a game species, and bounties ranging between 60 and 70 [[Euro]]s are paid to hunters for each wolf killed. This is a considerable sum in a country where the average monthly wage is 230 Euros.<ref>http://www.wolf.org/wolves/news/iwmag/2006/fall/wow_belarus.pdf</ref> In Russia, government-backed wolf exterminations have been largely discontinued since the fall of the [[Soviet Union]]. As a result, their numbers have stabilized and are increasing, though they are still hunted legally.<ref name="WOLVES" /> According to Alexander Tikhonov, head of the Department of Hunting Resources "the more wolves you have, the more problems there are." His department currently licenses a national bag limit of up to 14,000 wolves annually, with permits given to hunt even within nature reserves.<ref name="Russki" /> Currently, Russia is the only nation where poison is legally used to kill wolves. The government licensed a [[fluorine]]-[[acetate]]-[[barium]] compound and distributed it through hunting associations.<ref name="Russki" /> ===Asia=== Since the fall of the Soviet Union, wolf hunting in Kazakhstan has decreased in profit. About 2,000 are killed yearly for a $40 bounty, though the animal’s numbers have risen sharply.<ref name="KAZ">{{cite web | url = http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueID=115&articleID=1473 | title = Is Kazakhstan Home to the World’s Largest Wolf Population? | work = Christopher Pala | publisher = National Wildlife Federation | accessdate = 2007-09-28}}</ref> Wolf hunting has become a fashionable past-time for [[Mongolia]]'s new [[capitalism|capitalist]] rich, particularly around [[Ulaanbaatar]]. It is currently illegal to shoot animals from helicopters or jeeps, though many rich hunters do not pay attention to this, including the lawmakers. For Mongolian nomads, hunting wolves is more than a rich man's hobby because of evocations to the wolf's role in their mythology. Most post-Soviet Mongols have reverted to the traditional belief that to kill a wolf in January, or even to see one, brings good fortune for the whole year.<ref name="MONGWOLF" /> In 2006, the government of the [[People's Republic of China]] began plans to auction licences for foreigners to hunt wild animals, including wolves which are the only carnivores on the list of animals that can be hunted. The licence to shoot a wolf can apparently be acquired for $200.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4775335.stm BBC NEWS | Asia-Pacific | China to promote wild animal hunt<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===North America=== [[Montana]] has an official wolf-hunting season, contingent on wolves being taken off the endangered species list by the [[federal government]]. The wolf hunting season's opening date coincides with the big-game hunting season, but is extended to one month. Hunters are permitted to take wolves with both firearms and bows.<ref>[http://www.helenair.com/articles/2008/02/20/top/52lo_080220_wolves.txt helenair.com<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The number of licenses issued to wolf hunters is unlimited, though the state has a quota for the number of animals that can be killed. Officials recommend a quota of about 130 wolves. The plan calls for an annual limit of one wolf per hunter.<ref>[http://www.greatfallstribune.com/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20071221/NEWS01/712210320/1002 Great Falls Tribune - www.greatfallstribune.com - Great Falls, MT<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> In [[Alaska]], it is illegal to shoot a wolf with a [[.22-caliber rifle]] because wolves are classified as big game.<ref>http://www.wolvesgonewild.com/?p=130</ref> An estimated 15% of Canada and Alaska's 6,000-7,000 strong wolf population is harvested annually. [[Ontario]] ceased it's wolf bounty system in 1972, though retaining a year round open season for wolves.<ref name="WOLVES" /> ==Animals== ===Quarry animals=== ====Grey wolf==== {{main|Gray Wolf}} [[Image:WolfP1050427.jpg|200px|thumb|The [[Eurasian wolf|European grey wolf]] ''(Canis lupus lupus)'' was a popular quarry in [[Europe]] of the [[Middle Ages]]]] The [[Grey Wolf]] ''(Canis lupus)'' is the largest member of the [[canidae]]. Though once abundant over much of [[North America]] and [[Eurasia]], the grey wolf inhabits a very small portion of its former range because of widespread destruction of its habitat; in some regions it is endangered or threatened. Considered as a whole, however, the grey wolf is regarded as of least concern for extinction according to the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]]. Wolf weight and size can vary greatly worldwide, tending to increase proportionally with [[latitude]] as predicted by [[Bergmann's Rule]]. Wolves are usually hunted in heavy brush and are considered especially challenging to hunt, due to their elusive nature and sharp senses.<ref name="WOLFHUNT">{{cite web | url = http://www.albertabushadventures.com/wolf_hunting.html | title = Alberta Canada Wolf & Coyote Hunts with Alberta Bush Adventures Hunting Guides | work = | publisher = Alberta Bush Adventures| accessdate = 2007-09-27}}</ref> Grey wolves are notoriously shy and difficult to kill, having been stated to be almost as hard to [[Game stalker|stalk]] as [[cougar]]s, and being far more problematic to dispatch with poison, traps or hounds. Wolves though generally do not defend themselves as effectively as cougars or [[bear]]s.<ref name="TEDDY" /> Some wolves will evade capture for very long periods of time and display great cunning. On specimen nicknamed "Three Toes of Harding County" in South Dakota eluded its pursuers for 13 years before finally being caught.<ref name="Myths">{{cite web | url=http://www.aws.vcn.com/wolf_myth_legend_misconception.html | title = The Wolf: Myth, Legend and Misconception | publisher = Abundant Wildlife Society of North America | accessdate = 2008-07-10}}</ref> Another wolf nicknamed "[[Rags the digger]]" near Meeker, Colorado would deliberately ruin trap lines by digging up traps without tripping them.<ref name="Outlaw">{{cite web | url = http://www.internationalwolf.net/wolves/news/iwmag/2000/winter/outlaw_wolves.pdf | title = Legends of the "Outlaw Wolves" | work = | publisher = International Wolf Centre| accessdate = 2008-07-12}}</ref> In Sport hunting, wolves are usually taken in late Autumn and early Winter, when their pelts are of the highest quality and because the heavy snow makes it easier for the wolves to be tracked.<ref name="WOLFHUNT" /> Adult wolves are usually too fast to be overtaken by wolfhounds, but not for well conditioned horses, especially in thick snow. A shot wolf must be approached with caution, as some wolves will [[play possum]]. If the ears of the animal are erect, then it is safe to approach. If they are folded back, then the animal must be shot again.<ref name="Graves" /> Accounts as to how wolves react to being trapped or cornered vary. [[John James Audubon]] wrote that young wolves typically show little resistance to being caught, whereas older, more experienced wolves will fight savagely.<ref name="JJA">{{cite book | author=Audubon, John James | title=The Imperial Collection of Audubon Animals | year=1967 | pages=p307 | id={{ASIN|B000M2FOFM}} }}</ref> ====Other quarry==== The [[coyote]] (''Canis latrans''), is also known as the prairie or brush wolf, and is found throughout [[North America|North]] and [[Central America]], ranging from [[Panama]] in the south, north through [[Mexico]], the [[United States]], and [[Canada]]. It occurs as far north as [[Alaska]] and all but the northernmost portions of Canada.<ref name="Coyote">{{cite web | title = Canis latrans | work = | publisher = Animal Diversity Web | url = http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Canis_latrans.html | accessdate = 2007-08-15}}</ref> Coyote packs are generally smaller than wolf packs and associations between individuals are less stable. It has been theorized that this is due to an earlier expression of aggression, and the fact that coyotes reach their full growth in their first year, unlike wolves who reach it in their second.<ref name="Encyclopedia">{{cite book | author = Macdonald, David | url = http://www.amazon.com/Encyclopedia-Mammals-David-W-Macdonald/dp/0871968711 | title = The Encyclopedia of Mammals: 1| year = 1984 | pages = pp.446 | id = ISBN 0-04-500028-x}}</ref> In areas where wolves have been exterminated, coyotes usually flourish. For example, as New England became increasingly settled and the resident wolves were eliminated, the coyote population increased, filling the empty biological niche. Coyotes appear better able than wolves to live among people.<ref name="EC">{{cite web | title = Eastern Coyotes Are Becoming Coywolves | work = David Zimmerman | publisher = Caledonian record | url = http://www.caledonianrecord.com/pages/local_news/story/fef373e9d | accessdate = 2007-08-17}}</ref> The [[Red wolf]] ''(Canis rufus)'' is native to south-eastern parts of the United States, from [[Texas]] to [[Florida]] and is smaller than the grey wolf. It is thought that its original distribution included much of eastern North America, where Red Wolves were found from [[New York]] in the east, [[Florida]] in the south, and [[Texas]] in the south-west. Records of bounty payments to [[Wappinger Indians]] in New York in the middle 1700s confirm its range at least that far north<ref>J. Michael Smith: The Highland King Nimhammaw and the Native Indian Proprietors of Land in Dutchess County, NY: 1712-1765. ''Hudson River Valley Review''</ref>; it is possible that it could have extended as far as extreme eastern [[Canada]]. There are thought to be about 300 red wolves remaining in the world, with 220 of those in captivity.<ref name=USFWS>{{cite web | title = Red Wolf | work = US Fish & Wildlife | url = http://www.fws.gov/species/species_accounts/bio_rwol.html}}</ref> The [[Ethiopian wolf]] (''Canis simensis'') is a medium sized canid resembling the coyote in size and conformation, having long legs and a narrow pointed muzzle.<ref name="EthiopianWolf">{{cite web | title = Ethiopian wolf | work = | publisher = Canids.org| url = http://www.canids.org/species/Ethiopian_wolf.pdf | accessdate = 2008-04-23}}</ref> It is found in the Afro-[[alpine climate|alpine]] regions of [[Ethiopia]], about 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above [[sea level]]. It is the world's most endangered canid,<ref name="Info">{{cite web | title = Animal Info - Ethiopian Wolf | work = | publisher = animalinfo.org| url = http://www.animalinfo.org/species/carnivor/canisime.htm | accessdate = 2008-04-23}}</ref> with only about seven populations remaining, totalling roughly 550 adults. Although Ethiopian wolves are primarily solitary hunters of rodents, they live in packs that share and defend an exclusive territory. This differs from other wolves which live in groups for the purpose of hunting cooperatively.<ref name="Info" /> Unlike the grey wolf, the Ethiopian wolf is barely touched upon in the folklore or tradition of the human cultures with which it coexists, though the species is mentioned in Ethiopian literature dating back the 13th century. Currently, the Ethiopian wolf is a [[national symbol]], having been used in two [[stamp]] series.<ref name="EthiopianWolf" /> ===Animals of the hunt=== ====Hunting dogs==== [[Image:Desportes wolf.gif|thumb|The Wolf Hunt, [[Alexandre-François Desportes]]]] In his book ''Hunting the Grisly and Other Sketches'', [[Theodore Roosevelt]] wrote that though the use of [[Hunting dog]]s was the most effective means of wolf hunting, wolves were nonetheless extremely dangerous opponents for the dogs.<ref name="TEDDY">{{cite web | url = http://www.fullbooks.com/Hunting-the-Grisly-and-Other-Sketches3.html| title = ''Hunting the Grisly and Other Sketches'' | work = [[Theodore Roosevelt]]| publisher = | accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> {{cquote|''A wolf is a terrible fighter. He will decimate a pack of hounds by rabid snaps with his giant jaws while suffering little damage himself; nor are the ordinary big dogs, supposed to be fighting dogs, able to tackle him without special training. I have known one wolf to kill a [[American Bulldog|bulldog]] which had rushed at it with a single snap, while another which had entered the yard of a Montana ranch house slew in quick succession both of the large [[mastiff]]s by which it was assailed. The immense agility and ferocity of the wild beast, the terrible snap of his long-toothed jaws, and the admirable training in which he always is, give him a great advantage over fat, small-toothed, smooth-skinned dogs, even though they are nominally supposed to belong to the fighting classes. In the way that bench competitions are arranged nowadays this is but natural, as there is no temptation to produce a worthy class of fighting dog when the rewards are given upon technical points wholly unconnected with the dog's usefulness. A prize-winning mastiff or bulldog may be almost useless for the only purposes for which his kind is ever useful at all. A mastiff, if properly trained and of sufficient size, might possibly be able to meet a young or undersized [[Mexican Wolf|Texas wolf]]; but I have never seen a dog of this variety which I would esteem a match single-handed for one of the [[Mackenzie Valley Wolf|huge timber wolves of western Montana]]. Even if the dog was the heavier of the two, his teeth and claws would be very much smaller and weaker and his hide less tough.''| ''Hunting the Grisly and Other Sketches'', Chapter VIII Wolves and Wolfhounds}} [[Sighthound]]s specialize in pursuing prey, keeping it in sight, and overpowering it by their great speed and agility. Sighthounds may have existed for at least 5,000 years, with the earliest known sighthounds appearing in Eurasia. The earliest description of a sighthound in European recorded history comes from [[Arrian]]'s ''Cynegeticus'', of the 2nd century AD. [[Scent hound]]s are [[hound]]s that primarily hunt by scent rather than sight. They are generally regarded as having some of the most sensitive noses among [[Dog|canines]]. Most scent hounds were used for hunting in packs. Longer-legged hounds ran more quickly and usually required that the hunters follow on horseback; shorter-legged hounds allowed hunters to follow on foot. In wolf hunts, they usually played no part in the actual physical confrontation and were usually accompanied by sighthounds which would follow them until the wolf was found. Some hunters noted that scent hounds were usually difficult to work with on wolf hunts, as they would often become intimidated by the wolf's scent.<ref name="TEDDY" /> <div class="thumb tright"> <div style="width:182px;">[[Image:Borzoi portrait Flickr2.jpg|180px|]] [[Image:Irish Wolfhound 07.jpg|170px|]]<div class="thumbcaption"> Two sighthound breeds originally bred for hunting wolves; The Borzoi (top) and the Irish wolfhound (bottom)</div> </div> </div> =====Borzoi===== The [[Borzoi]] is a sighthound of Russian origin, thought to trace itself back to the 13th century. Until the abolition of [[serfdom]] in 1861, the Borzoi was used almost exclusively by the nobility. When embarking on a wolf hunt, the duke would usually take three hounds - two dogs and a bitch, which would be restrained on short leads. The Borzois would usually be accompanied by [[Foxhound]]s, whose job was to flush out the wolf. Once the wolf was driven from its lair, the Borzois would be released. The Borzois would run alongside the wolf and harass it. Once the wolf lost its balance and fell, it was immediately grabbed at the ears and throat and held down by the three dogs. The hunters then rode up and bound its legs and wedged a wooden block between its teeth. These wolf hunts lasted about an hour each and any young healthy wolves would then be released again.<ref>[http://www.sighthound.net/borzoigb.htm About Borzoi<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> =====Irish Wolfhound===== The Irish Wolfhound is an ancient sighthound originally bred by the [[Celts]] to hunt large game, including wolves. Unlike the Borzoi, the [[Irish wolfhound]] was bred not just to track and chase down wolves, but to directly kill them, shaking their quarry till their necks broke.<ref name="IWH">{{cite web | url = http://www.rohan-irishwolfhounds.com/The%20Irish%20Wolfhound.htm| title = The Irish Wolfhound | work = | publisher = Rohan Irish Wolfhounds | accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> After the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland, wolves were considered such a threat that a ban was imposed on the export of Irish wolfhounds so that the problem of wolves in Ireland could be tackled.<ref name="IRISHWOLVES">{{cite web | url = http://www.ucd.ie/gsi/pdf/33-2/lupus.pdf| title = A geographical perspective on the decline and extermination of the Irish wolf canis lupus | work = Kieran R. Hickey | publisher = Department of Geography, National University of Ireland, Galway | accessdate = 2007-09-12}}</ref> By the later part of the 19th century when wolves had by then been completely exterminated in Ireland, the wolfhounds very nearly became extinct.<ref name="IWH" /> =====Greyhound crosses===== Wolf hunting [[Greyhound]] crossbreeds were a personal favourite of Theodore Roosevelt who wrote that exclusively [[purebreed]] greyhounds were unnecessary, sometimes to the point of uselessness in a wolf hunt. Some [[American bulldog|bulldog]] blood in the dogs was considered helpful, though not essential. Nevertheless, Roosevelt wrote that no two greyhounds or deer-hounds were a match for a wolf, stating that it was preferable for a dozen or so dogs to be released simultaneously on the wolf, though he did mention it was possible for two or three veteran hounds of the greatest courage to kill a wolf unaided. Greyhounds were usually used in unison with scent hounds and large mongrels. The greyhounds would pursue and surround the wolf after the scent hounds had tracked it. They would then wait for the larger dogs to attack the wolf before going in for the kill themselves. Some hunters preferred the smooth greyhound, because of its great speed, and others the wire-coated animal, the rough deer-hound, because of its superior strength.<ref name="TEDDY" /> ====Eagles==== [[Image:2Eagles.jpg|150 px|thumb|Professional eagle hunters from [[Kazakhstan]].]] The use of [[Bird of prey|raptor]]s in the hunting of wolves is mostly exclusive to [[Central Asia]]. The ''berkut'' is a type of [[Golden Eagle]] which the [[Kyrgyz]] people have traditionally used to hunt wolves. In the past, wolf pelts provided material for clothes crucial for the survival of the nomadic people in the severe colds. The eagles are used to immobilise the wolves by placing one foot at the back of the neck and another at the flank closer to the heart and lungs. Hunters usually only use eagles against cubs, seeing as an adult wolf can cripple in combat even a highly experienced eagle. Losing even one toe or talon will significantly lower the eagle's ability to tackle prey. Only a minor injury to the sinew of a foot may leave the eagle incapable of further hunting. As a wolf is capable of resisting even the best-trained bird, the falconer always keeps near, ready at the first opportunity to help the eagle. However this is done carefully, as the wolf, sensing human presence, fights desperately to tear loose from the bird’s talons, and the eagle can be severely injured. Because of the violent nature of their work, eagles trained to hunt wolves have shorter life spans.<ref>[http://proeco.visti.net/naturalist/falconry/geagl.htm Golden Eagle<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ==Uses== ===Pelts=== [[Image:Wolf pelts.JPG|thumb|Wolf pelt geographical variations- A [[Mackenzie Valley]] wolf, a [[Yukon]] wolf, a [[Yugoslavia]]n wolf and a [[Europe]]an wolf]] Wolves are commonly hunted for their fur. The color of a wolf's fur can vary, although grey is the most common color. Wolves have two kinds of hairs; an outer coat of long, stiff hairs called "guard hairs" and an "undercoat" of soft fur which grows thick in the winter and helps to insulate their bodies from the cold. The five [[inch]] (127 mm) long guard hairs which are shed in spring and summer are waterproof, keeping the wolf's underfur dry and warm. The fur of the undercoat may be nearly two and a half inches thick and help keep a wolf warm even in temperatures reaching 40 degrees below zero.<ref name="NA">{{cite web | url = http://www3.cesa10.k12.wi.us/clustera/multimedia/altoona/solfest/fur.htm | title = Wolf fur | work = | publisher = Big, Bad Wolves: Lessons in Tolerance| accessdate = 2007-09-27}}</ref> Wolves in warm climates have shorter guard hairs and less dense underfur.<ref name="SAM">{{cite book | author = Lopez, Barry |url = http://www.amazon.com/Wolves-Men-Barry-Lopez/dp/0684163225/ref=pd_bbs_2?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203514926&sr=1-2 | title = Of wolves and men | year = 1978 | pages = pp.320 | id = ISBN 0743249364}}</ref> In medioeval Europe, pelts were the only considered practicality of wolves. Pelts were usually made into cloaks or mittens, though not without hesitation, due to the wolf's foul odour<ref name="Bloodsport" />. Wolf pelts were important to many [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American]] tribes and considered by some to be powerful medicine. Sacred articles were wrapped in wolf skin and some tribes also wove wolf and [[American bison]] hair together in small blankets. Native American hunters used wolf pelts as disguises to allow them stalk close bison herds. The bison were accustomed to having wolves walk among them and did not fear wolves unless they were vulnerable because of disease, injury, or if guarding young. Wolf pelts were also valuable as clothing, objects for trade and for ruffs or coats. They were also used in ritual dances and worn by some [[shaman]]s, or medicine men.<ref name="NA" /> [[Tundra]]-dwelling wolves are especially valued, as their [[pelage]]s are more luxuriant than those of forest dwelling wolves, sometimes selling for twice as much. Females typically have smoother coats than males.<ref name="SAM" /> European wolves typically have shorter, denser fur than their North American counterparts.<ref name="LOU">{{cite book | author = Ellis, Shaun | title = Le Loup : Sauvage et Fascinant | year = 2006 | pages = pp.225 | id = ISBN 2749905389}}</ref> Ethiopian wolves are not usually exploited for fur, though there was an occasion in [[Wollo]] in which wolf skins were used as [[saddle pad]]s.<ref name="EthiopianWolf" /> In the former [[Soviet Union]], between 1976 and 1988, 30,000 wolf pelts were produced annually. Recent statistics from [[CITES]] indicate that 6,000-7,000 wolf skins are internationally traded each year, with [[Canada]], the former Soviet Union, [[Mongolia]] and [[China]] being the largest exporters, and the [[United States]] and [[Great Britain]] being the largest importers.<ref name="WOLVES" /> Today, wolf pelts are still valued for [[parka]] trim, fur coats and [[rug]]s. The production of wolf pelts is still an important source of income for Arctic communities in Alaska and Canada.<ref name="WOLVES" /> ===Meat=== {{main|Dog meat}} It is rare for wolves to be hunted for food, though historically, people have resorted to consuming wolf flesh in times of scarcity, or for medicinal reasons. Most Native American tribes, especially the [[Naskapi]]s, viewed wolf flesh as edible but inadequate nutrition, as it was not a [[herbivore]] and thus did not possess the same healing qualities thought to be distinct in plant eaters.<ref name="SAM" /> In [[Mongolia]]n [[folk medicine]], eating the [[intestine]]s of a wolf is said to alleviate chronic indigestion, while sprinkling food with powdered wolf [[rectum]] is said to cure [[haemorroids]].<ref name="GK">{{cite book | author = Severin, Tim| url = http://www.amazon.com/Search-Genghis-Khan-Exhilarating-Horseback/dp/0815412878/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1203514977&sr=1-1| title = In Search of Genghis Khan: An Exhilarating Journey on Horseback Across the Steppes of Mongolia | year = 2003 | pages = pp.280 | id = ISBN 0815412878}}</ref> The mountain people of Japan once ate wolf meat in order to boost their courage, though they commented that the meat was tough. Mountain dwelling wolves known as ''yomainu'' were considered poisonous.<ref name="AINU">{{cite book | author = Walker, Brett L. | title = The Lost Wolves Of Japan | year = 2005 | pages = pp.331 | id = ISBN 0295984929}}</ref> There are not many traditional uses for Ethiopian wolves, though their [[liver]]s may be used for medicinal reasons in northern Ethiopia.<ref name="EthiopianWolf" /> During the European colonization of Western America, wolf meat was considered "not usually eatable", though fair game for a hungry man. However, Martin Schmitt argued that references to the consumption of wolf meat at the time may have actually been on [[coyotes]].<ref name="Schmitt">{{cite book | author = Schmitt, Martin| url = http://www.jstor.org/pss/1498034| title = "Meat's Meat": An Account of the Flesh-Eating Habits of Western Americans | year = 1952 | pages = pp.19 | id = }}</ref> During [[Vilhjalmur Stefansson]]'s Arctic expedition in 1913, [[George H. Wilkins]] sampled cooked wolf meat and commented that it was "fine eating" and noted a resemblance to [[chicken]].<ref>[http://www.civilization.ca/hist/cae/foo90e.html Civilization.ca - Canadian Arctic Expedition - Food<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> According to [[Maneka Gandhi]], wolf meat is a major source of [[trichinellosis]].<ref>[http://www.bihartimes.com/Maneka/animalmeateating.html Dangers of Animal meat eating<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Wolf meat is considered [[haram]] under [[Islam]]ic dietary laws ([[Sahih Muslim]], no: 1934)<ref>[http://www.central-mosque.com/fiqh/fhalal1.htm The Fiqh of Halal and Haram Animals<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> == Methods == === Aerial Hunting === Aerial hunting involves the tracking of wolves via a small airplane or helicopter and is considered by many to be the most effective method of wolf hunting. It was frequently used in the Soviet Union during its wolf control campaigns, starting in 1946 when the Chief Directorate of Aviation received reports that pilots flying at low altitudes often saw wolves frequently. [[Polikarpov Po-2]]s and [[Antonov An-2]]s were the most frequently used models. The normal protocol was for the pilot to search frontally, and the shooter sideways. 70%-80% of wolves were first sighted by the pilot. Rocket guns would be fired into dense brush in order to scare wolves out into the open. Markers were thrown at the site of each kill for later collection. Actual shooting was done from the rear cockpit or left side when at a distance of 18-20 metres from the quarry. An experienced shooter could spot a standing wolf a kilometre away at heights of up to 100-140 metres. Most wolves were killed when the planes flew at speeds of 70 to 85 km/h. Carcasses could be tied to the fuselage or wings of the plane. The rear cockpit could hold 4 wolves, while the shooters cockpit could hold 2. The load limit of a Po-2 was 2 men and 5 adult wolves. <ref name="Graves" /> Aerial hunting has been discontinued in the former Soviet Union due to budget restraints.<ref name="WOLVES" /> It is a common method used in the [[United States]], specifically in the state of [[Alaska]], though it is illegal to shoot wolves while flying. After the quarry is pursued by aircraft to the point of exhaustion, the hunters land and shoot the immobile animal.<ref>[http://www.wolfsongalaska.org/wolves_humans_hunting.html Wolf Song of Alaska: Wolf Hunting<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> === Blind === The use of heated box [[Hunting blind|blind]]s is a popular method of wolf hunting in modern [[Alberta]]. Bait stations are set in advance of the hunt, with blinds being erected in the more frequented spots. The method was developed as a response to the fact that finding wolves on foot was almost always a pure luck scenario, due to the wolf's elusiveness. Shots are usually fired when the wolf is {{convert|200|yd}} from the blind.<ref>[http://www.abhunting.com/wolf-coyote-hunting.asp Winter Wolf Hunts Alberta Canada Wolf Hunts Coyote Hunts Alberta Wolf Hunting Outfitters Guides<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> === Calling === [[Calling]] is a traditional wolf hunting method of Mongolia. The hunters go to the place where the pack is located early in the morning and will imitate a wolf's howl. The hunters howl in unison with the wolves and wait for the animals to come to them. Mongolian wolf hunting is usually done with the assistance of local herders.<ref>[http://www.budgettours.mn/id37.htm Wolf hunting<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Flagging=== In modern European Russia, a traditional wolf hunting method involves encircling the located wolf pack with a 3-5 kilometer (2-3 mile) long tether, having small swatches of fabric stitched to it every few feet. The fabric is usually red in order to be easier spotted over the background of snow by the guides. Since it retains a human scent for several days, wolves tend to stay within the encircled area. When the hunters arrive, the pack of wolves is already “flagged”.<ref>[http://www.russianhunting.com/wolf-hunting-in-russia/ Russia Wolf Hunt<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> ===Knife traps=== The Native Americans used two kinds of knife trap. One method was to encase a sharp blade in fat and frozen upright on a block of ice. The wolf would cut itself while licking the blade and bleed to death. The other method was a baited [[torsion]] spring which when triggered, would stab the wolf in the head.<ref name="SAM" /> ===Trapping pit=== Across the top of the [[trapping pit]] was a thick stick or pole, and on this was fastened a plank, which covered the top of the trap. On one end of this plank was a piece of venison, and on the other a stone. The way the trap was meant to work was this: The wolf would come to the venison, and just as it got on the plank to eat it, the plank would turn, causing the wolf to fall into the pit. The weight of the stone at the other end would bring the plank up again, ready baited for another wolf.<ref>Ranger, Robin ''Wolves and Foxes'' Sunday-School Union 1866</ref> ==Controversies== Modern wolf hunting has become a controversial issue in some countries. ===Livestock and crop damage=== Opponents have argued that at least in North America, wolves contribute little to overall livestock losses. In 1986, for example, Minnesota's wolf population consisted of 1,300–1,400 wolves, with an estimated 232,000 cattle and 16,000 sheep within Minnesota's wolf range. 26 cattle, about 0.01% of the cattle available were killed during that year, while only 13 sheep were taken, around 0.08% of the sheep available.<ref>{{ cite web |url = http://www.wolf.org/wolves/learn/intermed/inter_mgmt/depstat.asp | title = Wolf Depredation | publisher = International Wolf Center | date= August 2005}}</ref> Jim Dutcher, a filmmaker who raised a captive wolf pack, observed that the wolves were very reluctant to try meat that they had not previously eaten or seen another wolf eat before, possibly explaining why livestock depredation is unlikely except in cases of desperation.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.amazon.com/Wolves-Our-Door-Extraordinary-Couple/dp/0743400496 | title = Wolves at our door | publisher = Touchstone | first= Jim and Jamie| last= Dutcher | date = 2002| accessdate = 2007-02-27}}</ref> Wolf hunting proponents have drawn attention to the fact that wolves will on occasion commit acts of surplus killing when within the confines of human-made livestock shelters. Rare incidents of surplus killing by wolves in Minnesota are reported to leave up to 35 sheep killed and injured in flocks and losses of 50 to 200 birds in turkey flocks.<ref name="SURPLUS">{{cite web | url= http://http://www.wolftrust.org.uk/a-d7-depredation-surplus.html | title= Wolf Depredation | work= | publisher= Wolf Trust |accessdate= 2007-10-17}}</ref> While loss of livestock by wolves makes up only a small percentage of total losses in North America,<ref>{{ cite web |url = http://www.wolf.org/wolves/learn/intermed/inter_mgmt/depstat.asp | title = Wolf Depredation | publisher = International Wolf Center | date= August 2005}}</ref> surveys in Eurasia show some instances where wolf predation was frequent. Between April 1989 and June 1991, 21,000 sheep and goats plus 2,729 cattle were killed in Greece, with 5,894 sheep and goats and 880 cattle in 1998.<ref name="GW">{{cite web | title = Conservation Action Plan for the golden jackal (Canis aureus) in Greece | work = | publisher = WWF Greece | url = http://www.lcie.org/Docs/Action%20Plans/Greece%20Golden%20Jackal%20Action%20Plan%202004.pdf | accessdate = 2007-07-31}}</ref> In 1987, Kazakhstan reported over 150,000 domestic livestock losses to wolves, with 200,000 being reported a year later. In some areas of the former Soviet Union, wolves cause serious damage to [[watermelon]] plantations. Wolves will usually only take ripe melons after giving test bites, which can render even unripe fruits worthless for future consumption. Sometimes, up to 20% of the total watermelon crop can be destroyed on one raid.<ref name="Graves" /> ===Wolves and game herds=== Wolf hunting opponents have argued that wolves serve vital functions in areas where they are sympatric with game herds. By culling unhealthy animals, wolves allegedly keep game herds healthy. Opponents state that without wolves, prey populations swell unnaturally, unbalancing ecosystems whilst simultaneously sapping wildlife management resources.<ref name="Against">{{cite web | url= http://missllorosenvironmentalscience.com/work/Wolf%20Re%20-%20Introduction.DOC | title = Activists cry "Pro-wolf" | publisher = National Wildlife Federation | accessdate = 2008-04-23}}</ref> In the [[Iberian Peninsula]] for example, conservationists consider wolves to be beneficial because they keep [[wild boar]] populations stable, thus allowing some respite to the endangered [[capercaillie]] populations which suffer greatly from boar predation<ref>[http://www.iberianature.com/material/Wolves_boars_capercaillie.htm Wolves, boars and capercaillie<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>. Proponents for wolf hunting often point out the apparently adverse effects large wolf populations have on game herds. An example occurred in 2008, in which the Alaska Board of Game approved plans calling for department staff to shoot wolves from helicopters on the southern Alaska Peninsula under the pretense of assisting the survival of the Southern Alaska Peninsula [[Caribou]] Herd. Wolves were allegedly responsible for a dramatic drop in the Southern Alaska Caribou Herd's population, which once numbered up to 10,000 in 1983, only to drop to a population of 600 animals in 2008. Wolf predation was also believed to be responsible for virtually no calves surviving for the two years prior the culling plans, despite a 70% pregnancy rate.<ref name="Prohunt" /> In the former Soviet Union, depending on the locality, a single wolf can consume 90 [[saiga]], 50-80 [[wild boar]] or an average of 50 domestic or wild caribou annually. A pack of 2-5 wolves will often kill 2 caribou every three days. Further reports from the former Soviet Union indicate that rather than prey on exclusively sick or infirm prey, wolves seem to attack young or pregnant animals far more frequently, regardless of their sanitary state. In the Nenetskij National Okrug, wolves were shown to select pregnant female domestic caribou and calves rather than infirm specimens, with some reports showing that wolves bypassed emaciated, sickly animals in favour of well fed ones. Large numbers of wolves have also been blamed on the decline of [[Critically endangered species|critically endangered]] saiga antelope herds in Central Asia. During the late 1950s and early 60's when the Soviet Union used poison to effectively bring down wolf numbers, the number, as well as the range of moose, wild boar and red deer increased. [[Caspian seal]]s were valued as fur bearers in the Soviet industry, and in a three week period in February 1978, wolves were responsible for the wanton killing of numerous seals on the [[Caspian sea]] near [[Astrakhan]]. Between 17-40% of the seals in the area were estimated to have been killed, but not eaten.<ref name="Graves" /> ===Wolves and the spread of disease=== Some hunt proponents argue that large numbers of wolves are central to the spread of numerous infectious diseases due to their nomadic nature. Diseases recorded to be carried by wolves include [[rabies]], [[brucella]], [[deerfly fever]], [[listerosis]] [[foot and mouth disease]] and [[anthrax]]. Wolves are major hosts for rabies in Russia, Iran, Afghanistan, Iraq and India. Wolves in Russia have been recorded to carry over 50 different kinds of harmful parasites, including [[echinococcia]], [[cysticercocci]] and [[coenuri]]. A 10 year study in the former Soviet Union showed that in some regions, every successful wolf litter in spring coincided with an 100% increase in [[cestode]] infections in moose and wild boar, with some specimens sporting up to 30-40 [[cyst]]s. It also showed that where wolves were absent, the number of cysticerosis infected wild ungulates was much less. Despite their habit of carrying harmful diseases, large wolf populations are not negatively influenced by epizootic outbreaks as with other canids, and thus some hunting proponents argue that disease cannot be a guarantee of naturally controlling wolf numbers.<ref name="Graves">{{cite book | author = Graves, Will |url = http://www.wolvesinrussia.com/ | title = Wolves in Russia: Anxiety throughout the ages | year = 2007 | pages = pp.222 | id = ISBN 1550593323}}</ref> ===Attacks on humans=== {{main|Wolf attacks on humans}} The absence of a global review, and the [[language barrier]] having partially hindered the flow of international information has led some international groups to level criticism at some wolf advocates, claiming that they have extrapolated America's general lack of negative experiences with wolves to the rest of the world, whilst ignoring the differing histories and cultures which lead to diverse interactions with the animals.<ref name="Attacks">{{cite web | url= http://www.nina.no/archive/nina/Publikasjoner/oppdragsmelding/NINA-OM731.pdf | title= The Fear of Wolves: A Review of Wolf Attacks on Humans | publisher= Norsk Institutt for Naturforskning | accessdate= 2008-06-26}}</ref> Hunting proponents argue that wolves with no negative experiences of humans are more likely to encroach upon human settlements and attack people, citing for example the differences in attitudes toward the public distribution of firearms in America and Eurasia as examples as to why nations on both continents have differing accounts of wolf aggression.<ref name="Graves" /> Hunting wolves is reasoned to maintain shyness in wolves,<ref name="Attacks" /> a fact which is corollated by modern accounts demonstrating that wolves in protected areas are more likely to show no fear toward humans than ones in areas where they are actively hunted.<ref name="WOLVES" /> Historical and recent accounts indicate that individual wolves or wolf packs that turn [[man-eater]] typically do not stop their depredations until hunted and destroyed.<ref name="Attacks" /> ==Notable wolf hunters== *[[Ivan IV Vasilyevich]]<ref name="Ivan">{{cite book | author = Troyat, Henri | title = Ivan le terrible | year = 1993 | pages = pp.284 | id = ISBN 2080644734 }}</ref> *[[Mary I of Scotland]]<ref name="FB" /> *[[Antoine de Beauterne]] *[[Jean Chastel]] *[[Jack O'Connor (American writer)|Jack O'Connor]]<ref name="SAM" /> *[[Theodore Roosevelt]]<ref name="TEDDY" /> *[[Ernest Thompson Seton]] ==Gallery== <gallery> Image:Medium loup.jpg|Wolf hunt depicted in a 12th century bestiary Image:Medieval wolf hunt.jpg|''Wolf hunt with hounds'', 15th century engraving (wolf in upper right) Image:How Wolves may be caught with a Snare Fac simile of a Miniature in the Manuscript of Phoebus Fifteenth Century.png|15th century paper instructing on how to trap wolves with snares Image:Wolfhunt1582.jpg|Drawing of a wolf hunt from ''Neuw Jag vnnd Weyderwerck Buch'', Frankfurt am Main 1582 Image:Wolf-hunt-Stradano.jpg|A 16th century picture by [[Giovanni Stradano]] depicting a wolf hunt Image:Burgomaster_wolf.gif|The [[Wolf of Ansbach]], chased into a well and displayed on a gibbet Image:Wolf and Fox Hunt .jpg|''Wolf and Fox Hunt'' by Peter Paul Rubens Image:Loup Oudry.jpg|''Wolf hunt'' by [[Jean-Baptiste Oudry]] Image:Chasse-loup.jpg|Late 18th century picture of a wolf hunt Image:Beast-Attaque.jpg|Late 18th century depiction of the Beast of Gévaudan Image:La-Bete 3.jpg Image:La-Bete 4.jpg Image:Antoine_de_Beauterne.jpg|Antoine de Beauterne killing the Wolf of Chazes, 18th-century engraving Image:Wolf_of_Chazes.jpg|The wolf shot by François Antoine on 21 September 1765, displayed at the court of Louis XV Image:Wolf hunt by Gerard Reesbrack.jpg|18th century painting by Gerard Rysbrack Image:Huntingwolf.jpg|Wolf hunt with dogs, as depicted by [[Samuel Howitt]] (1765-1822) Image:Охота на волка.jpg|''Охота на волка'' 1873 Image:Второй Охота на волка.jpg|''Охота на волка'' 1873 Image:Wierusz-KowalskiAlfred.ZaatakowaniPrzezWilki.1880.ws.jpg|''Zaatakowani przez wilki'' (1880) by [[Alfred Wierusz-Kowalski]] (1849-1915) Image:ChelmonskiJozef.1883.NapadWilkow.jpg|''Napad wilków'' (1883) by Józef Chełmoński at the Museum of Polish Army, Warsaw, Poland Image:Wilki napadajace na sanie.jpg|''Wilki napadające na sanie'' (1890) by Alfred Wierusz-Kowalski Image:Wolf-shoot.jpg|A 19th century painting depicting the conclusion of a wolf hunt </gallery> ==See also== *[[Beast of Gevaudan|Beast of Gévaudan]], a famous episode of wolf-hunting *[[Hunting of Jean-Baptiste]], a notable wolf-hunt from 1780 *[[Wolf attacks on humans]], some of which have spurred hunts ==References== {{reflist|2}} {{North American Game}} [[Category:Blood sports]] [[Category:hunting]] [[Category:Wolves]]