Women in India
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[[Image:Assamese woman.jpg|Woman in [[Assam]], [[India]]|thumb]]
{{women in society}}
The status of '''women in India''' has been subject to many great changes over the past few millennia. From a largely unknown status in ancient times through the low points of the medieval period, to the promotion of [[women's rights|equal rights]] by many reformers, the history of women in [[India]] has been eventful.
==History==
===Ancient India===
Some scholars believe that in ancient India, the [[gender equality|women enjoyed equal status with men]] in all fields of life.<ref name="vedam_towards_gender">{{cite book
|last=Mishra
|first=R. C.
|title=Towards Gender Equality
|url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no43902.htm
|year=2006
|publisher=Authorspress
|id=ISBN 81-7273-306-2
}}</ref> However, some others hold contrasting views.<ref name="vedam_towards_gender">{{cite book
|title=Status and Position of Women: In Ancient, Medieval and Modern India
|last=Pruthi
|first=Raj Kumar
|coauthors=Rameshwari Devi and Romila Pruthi
|url=https://www.vedamsbooks.com/no21831.htm
|year=2001
|publisher=Vedam books
|id=ISBN 81-7594-078-6
}}</ref> Works by ancient Indian grammarians such as [[Patanjali]] and [[Katyayana]] suggest that women were educated in the early [[Vedic period]].<ref>''Varttika'' by [[Katyayana]], 125, 2477</ref><ref>Comments to Ashtadhyayi 3.3.21 and 4.1.14 by [[Patanjali]]</ref> Rigvedic verses suggest that the women married at a mature age and were probably free to select their husband.<ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): The history and culture of the Indian people. Volume I, The Vedic age. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.394</ref> Scriptures such as [[Rig Veda]] and [[Upanishad]]s mention several women sages and seers, notably [[Gargi]] and [[Maitreyi]].<ref name="about_vedic_women">{{cite web
|title=Vedic Women: Loving, Learned, Lucky!
|url=http://hinduism.about.com/library/weekly/aa031601c.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
Some kingdoms in the ancient India had traditions such as ''[[nagarvadhu]]'' ("bride of the city"). Women competed to win the coveted title of the ''nagarvadhu''. [[Ambapali|Amrapali]] is the most famous example of a nagarvadhu.
According to studies, women enjoyed equal status and rights during the early [[Vedic period]].<ref name="infochange_women">{{cite web
|title=InfoChange women: Background & Perspective
|url=http://www.infochangeindia.org/WomenIbp.jsp
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> However, later (approximately 500 B.C.), the status of women began to decline with the [[Smriti]]s (esp. [[Manusmriti]]) and with the [[Islamic]] invasion of [[Babur]] and the [[Mughal]] empire and later Christianity curtailing women's freedom and rights.<ref name="nrcw_history">{{cite web
|title=Women in History
|url=http://nrcw.nic.in/index2.asp?sublinkid=450
|publisher=National Resource Center for Women
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
Although reformatory movements such as Jainism allowed women to be admitted to the religious order, by and large, the women in India faced confinement and restrictions.<ref name="infochange_women"/> The practice of [[child marriage]]s is believed to have started from around sixth century.<ref name="kamat_medieval_karnataka">{{cite web
|title=Status of Women in Medieval Karnataka
|author=Jyotsana Kamat
|url=http://www.kamat.com/jyotsna/women.htm
|date=2006-11-05
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
===Medieval period===
[[Image:Pastimes15.jpg|thumb|right|Krishna at [[Radha|Goddesss Radharani's]] feet]]
The Indian woman's position in the society further deteriorated during the medieval period.<ref name="nrcw_history"/><ref name="vedam_towards_gender"/> [[Sati (practice)|Sati]], [[child marriages]] and ban on widow remarriages became part of social life in India. The [[Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent]] brought the [[purdah]] practice in the Indian society. Among the [[Rajput]]s of Rajasthan, the [[Jauhar]] was practised. In some parts of India, the [[Devadasi]]s or the temple women were sexually exploited. Polygamy was widely practised esp. among Hindu Kshatriya rulers.<ref name="kamat_medieval_karnataka"/> In many Muslim families, women were secluded to [[Zenana]].
In spite of these conditions, some women execeled in the fields of politics, literature, education and religion.<ref name="nrcw_history"/> [[Razia Sultana]] became the only woman monarch to have ever ruled [[Delhi]]. The [[Gondi people|Gond]] queen [[Durgavati]] ruled for fifteen years, before she lost her life in a battle with Mughal emperor [[Akbar]]'s general Asaf Khan in 1564. [[Chand Bibi]] defended [[Ahmednagar Sultanate|Ahmednagar]] against the mighty [[Mughal]] forces of Akbar in 1590s. [[Jehangir]]'s wife [[Nur Jehan]] effectively wielded imperial power and was recognized as the real force behind the Mughal throne. [[Shivaji]]'s mother, [[Jijabai]] was deputed as queen regent, because of her ability as a warrior and administrator. In South India, many women administered villages, towns, divisions and heralded social and religious institutions.<ref name="kamat_medieval_karnataka"/>
The Bhakti cults tried to restore women's status and questioned some of the forms of oppression.<ref name="infochange_women"/> [[Mirabai]], a female saint-poet, was one of the most important Bhakti movement figures. Some other female saint-poets from this period include Akkamadevi, Rami Janabai and Lal Ded.
Bhakti sects within Hinduism such as the Mahanubhav, Varkari and many others were principle movements within the Hindu fold to openly advocate social justice and equality between men and women.
Jahanara Begum and Princess Zebunnissa were well-known poetesses and they also influenced the ruling administration.
Shortly after the Bhakti movement, [[Guru Nanak]], the first Guru of [[Sikh]]s also preached the message of equality between men and women. He advocated that women be allowed to lead religious assemblies; to perform and lead congregational hymn singing called [[Kirtan]] or [[Bhajan]]; become members of religious management committees; to lead armies on the battlefield; have equality in marriage, and equality in [[Amrit]] (Baptism). Other [[Sikh Gurus]] also preached against the discrimination against women.
{{seealso|Women in Sikhism}}
===Historical practices===
Traditions such as [[Sati (practice)|sati]], [[jauhar]], child marriage, and [[devadasi]] have been banned and are largely defunct. However, some cases of these practices are still found in remote parts of India. The [[purdah]] is still practised by many Indian women.
;[[Sati (practice)|Sati]]
:Sati is an old, largely defunct custom, in which the widow was immolated alive on her husband's funeral pyre. Although the act was supposed to be a voluntary on the widow's part, it is believed to have been sometimes forced on the widow. It was abolished by the British in 1829. There have been around forty reported cases of sati since independence.<ref name="tribune_fifty_feudal">{{cite web
|title=Feudal mindset still dogs women's struggle
|author=Vimla Dang
|url=http://www.tribuneindia.com/50yrs/women.htm
|publisher=The Tribune
|date=1998-06-19
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> In 1987, the [[Roop Kanwar]] case of Rajasthan led to The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987
|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/commissionofsatiprevention.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
;[[Jauhar]]
:Jauhar refers to the practice of the voluntary immolation of all the wives and daughters of defeated warriors, in order to avoid capture and consequent molestation by the enemy. The practice was followed by the wives of defeated [[Rajput]] rulers, who are known to place a high premium on honour.
;[[Child marriage]]s
:Earlier, child marriages were highly prevalent in India. The young girls would live with their parents till they reached puberty. In the past, the child widows were condemned to a life of great agony, shaving heads, living in isolation, and shunned by the society.<ref name="kamat_gandhi_status">{{cite web
|title=Gandhi and Status of Women
|url=http://www.kamat.com/mmgandhi/gwomen.htm
|author=Jyotsna Kamat
|date=2006-12-19
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> Although child marriage was outlawed in 1860, it is still a common practice in some underdeveloped areas of the country.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/1617759.stm BBC News | SOUTH ASIA | Child marriages targeted in India<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
;[[Purdah]]
:Purdah is the practice of requiring women to cover their bodies so as to cover their skin and conceal their form. It imposes restrictions on the mobility of women, it curtails their right to interact freely and it is a symbol of the subordination of women. It does not reflect the religious teachings of either Hinduism or Islam, contrary to common belief, although misconception has occurred due to the ignorance and prejudices of religious leaders of both faiths.
;[[Devadasi]]s
:Devadasi is a religious practice in some parts of southern India, in which women are "married" to a deity or temple. The ritual was well established by the 10th century A.D.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/people/yellamma/yellamma.htm
|title=The Yellamma Cult
|author=K. L. Kamat
|date=2006-12-19
|accessdate=2006-12-25
}}</ref> In the later period, the illegitimate sexual exploitation of the devadasis became a norm in some parts of India.
===British rule===
European scholars observed in the 19th century Hindu women are "naturally chaste" and "more virtuous" than other women.<ref>Dubois, Jean Antoine and Beauchamp, Henry King, Hindu manners, customs, and ceremonies, Clarendon press, 1897</ref> During the [[British Raj]], many reformers such as [[Ram Mohan Roy]], [[Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar]], [[Jyotirao Phule]] etc. fought for the upliftment of women. Raja Rammohun Roy's efforts led to the abolition of the [[Sati (practice)|Sati]] practice in 1829. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar's crusade for the improvement in condition of widows led to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. Many women reformers such as [[Pandita Ramabai]] also helped the cause of women upliftment.
[[Rani Lakshmi Bai]], the Queen of [[Jhansi]], led the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]] against the British. She is now widely considered as a nationalist hero. [[Begum Hazrat Mahal]], the co-ruler of [[Awadh]], was another ruler who led the revolt of 1857. She refused the deals with the British and later retreated to Nepal. The [[Begum of Bhopal|Begums of Bhopal]] were also few of the notable female rulers during this period. They did not observe [[purdah]] and were trained in [[martial art]]s.
[[Chandramukhi Basu]], [[Kadambini Ganguly]] and [[Anandi Gopal Joshi]] were few of the earliest Indian women to obtain educational degrees.
In 1917, the first women's delegation met the Secretary of State to demand women's political rights, supported by the Indian National Congress. The All India Women's Education Conference was held in Pune in 1927.<ref name="infochange_women"/> In 1929, the Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed, stipulating fourteen as the minimum age of marriage for a girl through the efforts of [[Mahomed Ali Jinnah]].<ref>Ambassador of Hindu Muslim Unity, Ian Bryant Wells</ref><ref name="infochange_women"/> Though Mahatma Gandhi himself married at the age of thirteen, he later urged people to boycott child marriages and called upon the young men to marry the child widows<ref name="kamat_gandhi_status"/>
Women played an important part in India's independence struggle. Some of the famous freedom fighters include [[Bhikaji Cama]], Dr. [[Annie Besant]], [[Pritilata Waddedar]], [[Vijayalakshmi Pandit]], [[Rajkumari Amrit Kaur]], [[Anjali Ammal]], [[Aruna Asaf Ali]], [[Sucheta Kriplani]] and [[Kasturba Gandhi]]. Other notable names include [[Muthulakshmi Reddy]], [[Durgabai Deshmukh]] etc. The Rani of Jhansi Regiment of [[Subhash Chandra Bose]]'s [[Indian National Army]] consisted entirely of women including Captain [[Lakshmi Sahgal]]. [[Sarojini Naidu]], a poet and a [[freedom fighter]], was the first Indian woman to become the President of the [[Indian National Congress]] and the first woman to become the governor of a state in India.
==Independent India==
Women in India now participate in all activities such as education, politics, media, art and culture, service sectors, science and technology, etc.<ref name="nrcw_history"/>
The Constitution of India guarantees to all Indian women equality (Article 14), no discrimination by the State (Article 15(1)), equality of opportunity (Article 16), equal pay for equal work (Article 39(d)). In addition, it allows special provisions to be made by the State in favour of women and children (Article 15(3)), renounces practices derogatory to the dignity of women (Article 51(A) (e)), and also allows for provisions to be made by the State for securing just and humane conditions of work and for maternity relief. (Article 42).<ref name="un_women_free_equal">{{cite web
|title=Women in India: How Free? How Equal?
|url=http://www.un.org.in/wii.htm
|author=Kalyani Menon-Sen, [[A. K. Shiva Kumar]]
|publisher=United Nations
|date=2001
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
The [[feminism in India|feminist activism in India]] picked up momentum during later 1970s. One of the first national level issues that brought the women's groups together was the [[Mathura rape case]]. The acquittal of policemen accused of raping a young girl Mathura in a police station, led to a wide-scale protests in 1979–1980. The protests were widely covered in the national media, and forced the Government to amend the Evidence Act, the Criminal Procedure Code and the Indian Penal Code and introduce the category of custodial rape.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Female activists united over issues such as female infanticide, gender bias, women health, and female literacy.
Since alcoholism is often associated with violence against women in India,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9803.pdf
|title=Women of the World: Women's Health in India
|author=Victoria A. Velkoff and Arjun Adlakha
|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce
|date=October 1998
|accessdate=2006-12-25
}}</ref> many women groups launched anti-liquor campaigns in [[Andhra Pradesh]], [[Himachal Pradesh]], [[Haryana]], [[Orissa]], [[Madhya Pradesh]] and other states.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Many Indian Muslim women have questioned the fundamental leaders' interpretation of women's rights under the Shariat law and have criticized the [[triple talaq]] system.<ref name="infochange_women"/>
In 1990s, grants from foreign donor agencies enabled the formation of new women-oriented NGOs. Self-help groups and NGOs such as [[SEWA|Self Employed Women's Association]] (SEWA) have played a major role in women's rights in India. Many women have emerged as leaders of local movements. For example, [[Medha Patkar]] of the [[Narmada Bachao Andolan]].
The Government of India declared 2001 as the Year of Women's Empowerment (''Swashakti'').<ref name="infochange_women"/> The National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women came was passed in 2001.<ref>{{cite web
|title=National Policy For The Empowerment Of Women (2001)
|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/empwomen.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
In 2006, the case of a Muslim rape victim called Imrana was highlighted in the media. Imrana was raped by her father-in-law. The pronouncement of some Muslim clerics that Imrana should marry her father-in-law led to wide-spread protests and finally Imrana's father-in-law was given a prison term of 10 years, The verdict was welcomed by many women's groups and the All India Muslim Personal Law Board.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://southasia.oneworld.net/article/view/141611/1/
|title=OneWorld South Asia News: Imrana
|accessdate=2006-12-25
}}</ref>
===Timeline===
The steady change in their position can be highlighted by looking at what has been achieved by women in the country:
* 1905: Suzanne RD [[Tata]] becomes the first Indian woman to drive a car.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.mumbaipolice.org/aboutus/history.htm |title=Mumbai Police History |accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref>
*1916: The first women's university, [[SNDT Women's University]], was founded on [[June 2]], [[1916]] by the [[social reformer]] [[Dhondo Keshav Karve]] with just five students.
* 1927: The [[All India Women's Conference]] was founded.
* 1994: Harita Kaur Deol becomes the first Indian woman to perform a solo flight.
* 1951: Prem Mathur becomes the first Indian women commercial pilot of the [[Deccan Airways]]
* 1959: Anna Chandy becomes the first Indian woman Judge of High Court<ref>{{cite web |url=http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/judge.htm |title=High Court of Kerala: Former Chief Justices / Judges |accessdate=2006-12-24}}</ref>
* 1966: Captain Durga Banerjee becomes the first Indian woman pilot of the state airline, [[Indian Airlines]].
* 1966: [[Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay]] wins [[Ramon Magsaysay award]] for community leadership.
* 1966: [[Indira Gandhi]] becomes the first woman [[Prime Minister of India]]
* 1970: [[Kamaljit Sandhu]] becomes the first Indian woman to win a Gold in the [[Asian Games]]
* 1972: [[Kiran Bedi]] becomes the first female recruit to join the [[Indian Police Service]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/sga827.doc.htm|title=Kiran Bedi Of India Appointed Civilian Police Adviser | accessdate=2006-12-25}}</ref>
* 1989: Justice [[M. Fathima Beevi]] becomes the first woman judge of the [[Supreme Court of India]].<ref> http://highcourtofkerala.nic.in/judge.htm </ref>
* November 1997: [[Kalpana Chawla]] becomes the first Indian woman to go into Space.<ref>http://www.funlok.com/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=1498 </ref>
* [[September 21]], [[1992]]: Priya Jhingan becomes the first lady cadet to join the [[Indian Army]] (later commissioned on [[March 6]], [[1993]])<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Articles/Article29.html |title= Army'S First Lady Cadet Looks Back |accessdate=2007-03-30}}</ref>
*2004: Punita Arora becomes the first woman in the [[Indian Army]] to don the highest rank of Lt General.
* 2005: Manndhir Rajput, a 34-year-old woman from [[Ludhiana]], [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] becomes the first Indian woman to become an engine driver of trains with the New South Wales Rail Corporation, Australia.<ref>[http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060521/society.htm The Tribune, Chandigarh, India - Education Tribune<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><!-- dubious? is she Indian citizen? Also, there have been female engine drivers for local trains in India? -->
* 2007: [[Pratibha Patil]] becomes the first woman President of India.
==Culture==
[[Sari]] (a single piece of a long cloth wound around the body) and [[salwar kameez]] are worn by women all over India. ''[[Bindi (decoration)|Bindi]]'' is part of the women's make-up. Traditionally, it was worn only by the married Hindu women, but now it has become a part of women's fashion.<ref>[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/women/bindi.htm Kamat's Potpourri: The Significance of the holy dot (Bindi)<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref>
[[Rangoli]] (or Kolam) is a traditional art very popular among Indian women. Popular women's magazines include [[Femina (India)|Femina]], [[Grihshobha]] , [[vanita]], Woman's Era etc.
==Education and economic development==
According to 1992-93 figures, only 9.2% of the households in India were female-headed. However, approximately 35% of the households below the poverty line were found to be female-headed.<ref name="fao_sd_india">{{cite web
|title=Asia's women in agriculture, environment and rural production: India
|url=http://www.fao.org/sd/wpdirect/WPre0108.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref>
===Education===
Though it is gradually rising, the female literacy rate in India is lower than the male literacy rate. Compared to boys, far fewer girls are enrolled in the schools, and many of them drop out.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> According to the National Sample Survey Data of 1997, only the states of [[Kerala]] and [[Mizoram]] have approached universal female literacy rates. According to majority of the scholars, the major factor behind the improved social and economic status of women in Kerala is literacy.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>
Under Non-Formal Education programme, about 40% of the centers in states and 10% of the centers in [[Union Territory|UTs]] are exclusively [[reservation in India|reserved]] for females.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} As of 2000, about 0.3 million NFE centers were catering to about 7.42 million children, out of which about 0.12 million were exclusively for girls.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} Currently, in engineering, medical and other colleges, 30% of the seats have been reserved for females.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In urban india, girls are nearly at par with the boys in terms of education. However, in rural India girls continue to be less educated than the boys.
According to a 1998 report by U.S. Department of Commerce, the chief barrier to female education in India are inadequate school facilities (such as sanitary facilities), shortage of female teachers and gender bias in curriculum (majority of the female characters being depicted as weak and helpless)<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.census.gov/ipc/prod/wid-9801.pdf
|title=Women of the World: Women's Education in India
|author=Victoria A. Velkoff
|publisher=U.S. Department of Commerce
|date=October 1998
|accessdate=2006-12-25
}}</ref>
===Workforce participation===
Contrary to the common perception, a large percent of women in India work.<ref name="kamat_faq">{{cite web
|title=Women of India: Frequently Asked Questions
|url=http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/women/faq.htm
|date=2006-12-19
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> The National data collection agencies accept the fact that there is a serious under-estimation of women's contribution as workers.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> However, there are far fewer women in the paid workforce than there are men.In urban India Women have impressive number in the workforce. As an example at software industry 30% of the workforce is woman. They are at par with their male counter parts in terms of wages, position at the work place.
In rural India, agriculture and allied industrial sectors employ as much as 89.5% of the total female labour.<ref name="fao_sd_india"/> In overall farm production, women's average contribution is estimated at 55% to 66% of the total labour. According to a 1991 World Bank report, women accounted for 93% of total employment in dairy production in India. Women constitute 51% of the total employed in forest-based small-scale enterprises.<ref name="fao_sd_india"/>
One of the most famous female business success stories is the [[Shri Mahila Griha Udyog]], the makers of the [[Lijjat papad]]. In 2006, [[Kiran Mazumdar-Shaw]], who started Biocon - one of India's first biotech companies, was rated India's richest woman. Lalita Gupte and Kalpana Morparia (both were the only businesswomen in India who made our list of the Forbes World's Most Powerful Women), run India's second-largest bank, [[ICICI Bank]].<ref>[http://www.forbes.com/2006/08/30/power-women-india_cz_mb_06women_0831india.html India's Most Powerful Businesswomen]. [[Forbes|Forbes.com]].</ref>
===Land and property rights===
In most Indian families, women do not own any property in their own names, and do not get a share of parental property.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Due to weak enforcement of laws protecting them, women continue to have little access to land and property.<ref name="carol_chronic">{{cite web
|title=Chronic Hunger and the Status of Women in India
|url=http://www.thp.org/reports/indiawom.htm
|author=Carol S. Coonrod
|date=June 1998
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> In fact, some of the laws discriminate against women, when it comes to land and property rights.
The Hindu personal laws of mid-1956s (applied to Hindus, Buddhists, Sikhs and Jains) gave women rights to inheritance. However, the sons had an independent share in the ancestral property, while the daughters' shares were based on the share received by their father. Hence, a father could effectively disinherit a daughter by renouncing his share of the ancestral property, but the son will continue to have a share in his own right. Additionally, married daughters, even those facing marital harassment, had no residential rights in the ancestral home. After amendment of Hindu laws in 2005, now women in have been provided the same status as that of men{{Fact|date=February 2007}}.
In 1986, the Supreme Court of India ruled that [[Shah Bano case|Shah Bano]], an old divorced Muslim woman was eligible for maintenance money. However, the decision was vociferously opposed by fundamentalist Muslim leaders, who alleged that the court was interfering in their personal law. The [[Government of India|Union Government]] subsequently passed the Muslim Women's (Protection of Rights Upon Divorce) Act.<ref>{{cite web|title = The Muslim Women (Protection of Rights on Divorce) Act|url=http://www.sudhirlaw.com/themuslimwomen.htm|date=May 1986|accessdate=2008-02-14}}</ref>
Similarly, the Christian women have struggled over years for equal rights of divorce and succession. In 1994, all the churches, jointly with women's organisations, drew up a draft law called the Christian Marriage and Matrimonial Causes Bill. However, the government has still not amended the relevant laws.<ref name="infochange_women"/>
==Crimes against women==
Police records show high incidence of crimes against women in India. The National Crime Records Bureau reported in 1998 that the growth rate of crimes against women would be higher than the population growth rate by 2010.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Earlier, many cases were not registered with the police due to the social stigma attached to rape and molestation cases. Official statistics show that there has been a dramatic increase in the number of reported crimes against women.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>
===Sexual Harassment===
Half of the total number of crimes against women reported in 1990 related to molestation and harassment at the workplace.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> [[Eve teasing]] is a euphemism used for sexual harassment or molestation of women by men. Many activists blame the rising incidents of sexual harassment against women on the influence of "Western culture". In 1987, The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act was passed<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1987
|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionrules.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> to prohibit indecent representation of women through advertisements or in publications, writings, paintings, figures or in any other manner.
In 1997, in a landmark judgement, the Supreme Court of India took a strong stand against sexual harassment of women in
the workplace. The Court also laid down detailed guidelines for prevention and redressal of grievances. The National Commission for Women subsequently elaborated these guidelines into a Code of Conduct for employers.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>
===Dowry===
''Main articles: [[Dowry]] and [[Dowry law in India]]''
In 1961, the Government of India passed the Dowry Prohibition Act,<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961
|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionact.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> making the dowry demands in wedding arrangements illegal. However, many cases of dowry-related domestic violence, suicides and murders have been reported. In the 1980s, numerous such cases were reported.<ref name="kamat_faq"/>
In 1985, the Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) rules were framed.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Dowry Prohibition (maintenance of lists of presents to the bride and bridegroom) rules, 1985
|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/dowryprohibitionrules.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> According to these rules, a signed list of presents given at the time of the marriage to the bride and the bridegroom should be maintained. The list should contain a brief description of each present, its approximate value, the name of whoever has given the present and his/her relationship to the person. However, such rules are hardly enforced.
A 1997 report<ref>''Kitchen fires Kill Indian Brides with Inadequate Dowry'', [[July 23]], [[1997]], New Delhi, UPI</ref> claimed that at least 5,000 women die each year because of dowry deaths, and at least a dozen die each day in 'kitchen fires' thought to be intentional. The term for this is "[[bride burning]]" and is criticized within India itself. Amongst the urban educated, such dowry abuse has reduced dramatically.
===Female infanticides and sex selective abortions===
{{main|Sex-selective abortion and infanticide}}
India has a low sex ratio, the chief reason being that many women die before reaching adulthood.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Tribal societies in India have a better sex ratio than all other [[Indian caste system|caste]] groups. This, in spite of the fact that tribal communities have far lower levels of income, literacy and health facilities.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> It is therefore suggested by many experts, that the low sex ratio in India can be attributed to female infanticides and sex-selective abortions.
All medical tests that can be used to determine the sex of the child have been banned in India, due to incidents of these tests being used to get rid of unwanted female children before birth. Female infanticide (killing of girl infants) is still prevalent in some rural areas.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> The abuse of the dowry tradition has been one of the main reasons for sex-selective abortions and female infanticides in India.
===Domestic violence===
The incidents of domestive violence are higher among the lower Socio-Economic Classes (SECs). There are various instances of an inebriated husband beating up the wife often leading to severe injuries. Domestic violence is also seen in the form of physical abuse. The Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act, 2005 came into force on [[October 26]], [[2006]].
===Trafficking===
The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act was passed in 1956.<ref>{{cite web
|title=The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956
|url=http://www.wcd.nic.in/act/itpa1956.htm
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> However many cases of trafficking of young girls and women have been reported. These women are either forced into prostitution, domestic work or [[child labor]].
==Other concerns==
===Health===
The average female life expectancy today in India is low compared to many countries, but it has shown gradual improvement over the years. In many families, esp. rural ones, the girls and women face nutritional discrimination within the family, and are anaemic and malnourished.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>
The maternal mortality in India is the second highest in the world.<ref name="infochange_women"/> Only 42% of births in the country are supervised by health professionals. Most women deliver with help from women in the family who often lack the skills and resources to save the mother's life if it is in danger.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> According to UNDP Human Development Report (1997), the proportion of pregnant women (age 15-49 aged) with anemia was found to be as high as 88%.<ref name="fao_sd_india"/>
===Family planning===
The average Indian woman has little control over her own fertility and reproductive health.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/> Women, particularly women in rural areas, do not have access to safe and self-controlled methods of contraception. The public health system emphasises permanent methods like sterilisation, or long-term methods like IUDs that do not need follow-up. Sterilization accounts for more than 75% of total contraception, with female sterilisation accounting for almost 95% of all sterilisations<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>
==Notable Indian women==
{{Expand|date=January 2007}}
===Arts and entertainment===
Singers and vocalists such as [[M.S. Subbulakshmi]], [[Lata Mangeshkar]] and [[Asha Bhosle]] are widely revered in India. Many actresses such as [[Aishwarya Rai]] are highly popular. [[Anjolie Ela Menon]] is a famous painter.saroj dhingra is the biggest nautankibaaz
===Sports===
Although the general sports scenario in India is not very good, some Indian women have made notable achievements in the field. Some of the famous female sportspersons in Indian include [[P. T. Usha]] (athletics), [[Kunjarani Devi]] (weightlifting), [[Diana Edulji]] (cricket), [[Koneru Hampi]] (chess) and [[Sania Mirza]] (tennis). [[Karnam Malleswari]] (weightlifter), is the only Indian woman to have won an Olympic medal (Bronze medal in 2000).
===Politics===
Through the [[Panchayat]] Raj institutions, over a million women have actively entered political life in India.<ref name="carol_chronic"/> As per the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendment Acts, all local elected bodies reserve one-third of their seats for women. Although the percentages of women in various levels of political activity has risen considerably, women are still under-represented in governance and decisionmaking positions.<ref name="un_women_free_equal"/>
In 2005, the Women's Reservation Bill was passed, providing 33% reservation for women in Parliament and State Assembly. Some of the notable women leaders in India include [[Sushma Swaraj]], [[Vasundhara Raje Scindia]], [[Sheila Dikshit]], [[Jayalalitha]], [[Uma Bharati]], [[Mayawati]], [[Mamata Banerjee]] and [[Sonia Gandhi]]. On [[July 25]], [[2007]] the country's ever first woman president [[Pratibha Patil]] was sworn in.
===Literature===
[[Anita Desai]], [[Arundhati Roy]], [[Shashi Deshpande]], [[Shobha De]], [[Kiran Desai]], [[Sarojini Naidu]] etc. are some of the notable female Indian authors.
===Other fields===
[[Tarla Dalal]] is a popular cookery author, who has written more than 30 books. Several of her books have been translated into various languages, and the total sales of her books exceeds 1 million copies.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://food.sify.com/fullstory.php?id=13460619
|title=Tarla Dalal - Profile
|accessdate=2006-12-24
}}</ref> [[Shahnaz Husain]] is one of the most popular Indian beauticians and entrepreneur.
==See also ==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
* [[Feminism in India]]
* [[Women's rights]]
* [[Women in Sikhism]]
* [[Women in Hinduism]]
{{col-2}}
* [[Sexism in India]]
* [[List of Indian women artists]]
* [[List of Indian film actresses]]
* [[Indian women in dance]]
{{col-end}}
== Bibliography ==
* 'Quand les femmes auront disparu. L'élimination des filles en Inde et en Asie', Bénédicte Manier, La Découverte, Paris 2006 (a well documented investigation book on "female foeticide" and "missing women" in India, published in French).
==References==
{{reflist|2}}
==External links==
* [http://womennewsnetwork.net/2007/11/05/nothing-to-go-back-to-the-fate-of-the-widows-of-vrindavan-india/"Nothing to Go Back To - The Fate of the Widows of Vrindavan, India"] WNN - Women News Network
* [http://ncw.nic.in/ National Commission for Women]
* [http://www.wcd.nic.in Ministry of Women & Child Development]
* [http://sawnet.org/ South Asian Women's NETwork] (SAWNET)
* [http://www.skidmore.edu/academics/arthistory/ah369/LINKSPG2.HTM#bib Women of the Mughal Dynasty]
* [http://www.pariwariksuraksha.org Indian women & Dowry law misuse]
* [http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/women/index.htm Women of India]
* [http://www.rediff.com/money/2005/apr/29spec.htm 21 Top Women CEOs of India]
* [http://www.szirine.com/countrytemplate.php?country=India The Bangle Code - fiction related to unwritten social rules that Indian women have to deal with]
* [http://www.memsaab.com/ A global network for Indian Women]
{{Asia topic|Women in}}
[[Category:Indian society]]
[[Category:Women's rights in Asia|India]]
[[Category:Asian culture]]
[[Category:Indian women]]