Wood Thrush 379910 213361733 2008-05-19T00:12:41Z Icewedge 2469121 Reverted edits by [[Special:Contributions/71.171.170.125|71.171.170.125]] ([[User talk:71.171.170.125|talk]]) to last version by RyRy5 {{Taxobox | name = Wood Thrush | status = LC | status_ref = <ref name="Birdlife">{{IUCN2006|assessors='''BirdLife International'''|year=2004|id=51580|title=Hylocichla mustelina|downloaded=12 May 2006}} Database entry contains justification for why species is of least concern</ref> | image = Woodthrush79.jpg | image_width = 250px | regnum = [[Animal]]ia | phylum = [[Chordate|Chordata]] | classis = [[bird|Aves]] | ordo = [[passerine|Passeriformes]] | familia = [[thrush (bird)|Turdidae]] | genus = '''''Hylocichla''''' | genus_authority = [[Spencer Fullerton Baird|Baird]], [[1864]] | species = '''''H. mustelina''''' | binomial = ''Hylocichla mustelina'' | binomial_authority = ([[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], [[1789]]) | synonyms = ''Catharus mustelinus'' }} The '''Wood Thrush''', ''Hylocichla mustelina'', is a North American [[passerine]] [[bird]]. It is closely related to other thrushes such as the [[American Robin]] and is widely distributed across North America, wintering in [[Central America]] and southern [[Mexico]]. The Wood Thrush is the official bird of the [[District of Columbia]].<ref name="50 States">{{cite web|url=http://www.50states.com/dc.htm |author=50 States|title=50 States|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> The Wood Thrush is a medium-sized [[Thrush (bird)|thrush]], with brown upper parts with mottled brown and white underparts. The male and female are similar in appearance. The male has one of the most beautiful songs of birds in North America. The Wood Thrush is an [[omnivore]], and feeds preferentially on soil invertebrates and larvae, but will also eat fruits. In the summer, it feeds on insects continuously in order to meet daily metabolic needs. It is solitary, but sometimes form mixed-species flocks. The Wood Thrush defends a territory that ranges in size from 800 to 28000 square meters. The Wood Thrush is [[monogamous]], and its breeding season begins in the spring; about 50 percent of all mated pairs are able to raise two broods, ranging in size from 2 to 4 chicks.<ref name="Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology"> {{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/BOW/WOOTHR/|author=Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology|title=Wood Thrush|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> ==Taxonomy== The only member of the genus ''Hylocichla'', the Wood Thrush was described by [[Germany|German]] [[natural history|naturalist]] [[Johann Friedrich Gmelin]] in 1789. The generic name is a direct translation of its common name, derived from the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''hyle''/ύλη "woodland" and ''cichle''/κιχλη "thrush" or "[[fieldfare]]".<ref name="Liddell 1980">{{cite book | author = [[Henry George Liddell|Liddell, Henry George]] and [[Robert Scott (philologist)|Robert Scott]] | year = 1980 | title = [[A Greek-English Lexicon]] (Abridged Edition) | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | location = United Kingdom | id = ISBN 0-19-910207-4}}</ref> The specific name comes from the [[Latin]] ''mustela'' "weasel".<ref>{{cite book | last = Simpson | first = D.P. | title = Cassell's Latin Dictionary | publisher = Cassell Ltd. | date = 1979 | edition = 5 | location = London | pages = 883 | id = ISBN 0-304-52257-0}}</ref> It is closely related to the other typical American thrushes of the genus ''[[Catharus]]'', and is sometimes merged into that genus;<ref name="University of New Mexico Auk">{{cite web|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Auk/v105n02/p0392-p0394.html|author university of New Mexico Auk.|title=University of New Mexico Auk|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref>. It has been considered close to the long-distance [[bird migration|migrant]] species of that genus, as opposed to the generally resident nightingale-thrushes, but this appears to be erroneous.<ref name="BioOne"> {{cite web|url=http://www.bioone.org/perlserv/?request=get-abstract&doi=10.1642%2F0004-8038%282006%29123%5B1052%3ASMSAMC%5D2.0.CO%3B2|author=Kevin Winker, Christin L. Pruett.|year=2005|title=SEASONAL MIGRATION, SPECIATION, AND MORPHOLOGICAL CONVERGENCE IN THE GENUS CATHARUS (TURDIDAE)|work="[[The Auk]]"|doi="10.1642/0004-8038(2006)123[1052:SMSAMC]2.0.CO;2"|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref>. The Wood Thrush also appears to be fairly closely related to the large ''[[Turdus]]'' thrushes, such as the [[American Robin]]. ==Description== The adult Wood Thrush is 19-21&nbsp;cm (7½-8¼&nbsp;in) long, and weighs 40-50&nbsp;g, with a wingspan of 30-40 cm (12-16&nbsp;in).<ref name="All About Birds"/> The longest known lifespan for a Wood Thrush in the wild is 8&nbsp;years, 11&nbsp;months.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> The crown, nape, and upper back are cinnamon-brown, while the back wings, and tail are a slightly duller brown. The breast and belly are white with large dark brown spots on the breast, sides, and flanks. It has white eye rings and pink legs.<ref name="Stiles2">{{cite book| last=Stiles| first=F. Gary| last=Skutch| first=Alexander Frank| authorlink=F. Gary Stiles| authorlink=Alexander Frank Skutch| year=1989| title=A Guide to the Birds of Costa Rica|location=Ithaca|publisher=Comstock| isbn=0-8014-9600-4}}</ref> Other brownish thrushes have finer spotting on the breast.<ref name ="Bull87"/> The juvenile looks similar to adults, but has additional spots on the back, neck, and wing coverts. The male and female are similar in size and plumage. ===Vocalization=== The Wood Thrush has been reported to have one of the most beautiful songs of North American birds.<ref name ="Bull87">{{cite book |author= Bull J, Farrand, J Jr |title=Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds:Eastern Region |year=1987 |publisher=Alfred A. Knopf |pages = 666-667|location=New York |isbn=0-394-41405-5}}</ref> American naturalist [[Henry David Thoreau]] wrote: <blockquote>Whenever a man hears it he is young, and Nature is in her spring; wherever he hears it, it is a new world and a free country, and the gates of Heaven are not shut against him.</blockquote> While the female is not known to sing, the male has a unique song that has three parts. The first subsong component is often inaudible unless the listener is close, and consists of two to six short, low-pitched notes such as ''bup, bup, bup.'' The middle part is a loud phrase often written ''ee-oh-lay,'' and the third part is a ventriloquial, trill-like phrase of non-harmonic pairs of notes given rapidly and simultaneously. The male is able to sing two notes at once, which gives its song an ethereal, flute-like quality.<ref name="WeidensaulA">{{cite book| last = Weidensaul| first =Scott | title =Of a Feather: A Brief History of American Birding| publisher =Harcourt, Inc| date =2007| location =New York| pages =237 | isbn =978-0-15-101247-3 }}</ref> Each individual bird has its own repertoire based on combinations of variations of the three parts. Songs are often repeated in order. The ''bup, bup, bup'' phrase is also sometimes used as a call, which is louder and at a greater frequency when the bird is agitated.<ref name="Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology"/> The Wood Thrush also use a ''tut, tut'' to signal agitation.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> The nocturnal flight call is an emphatic buzzing ''heeh.''<ref name="All About Birds"/> ==Distribution and habitat== The Wood Thrush's breeding range extends from [[Manitoba]], [[Ontario]] and [[Nova Scotia]] in southern [[Canada]] to northern [[Florida]] and from the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] coast to the [[Missouri River]] and the eastern [[Great Plains]]. It [[bird migration|migrates]] to southern [[Mexico]] through to [[Panama]] in [[Central America]] in the winter, mostly in the lowlands along the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] coasts.<ref name ="Bull87"/> It generally arrives on the U.S. Gulf Coast during the first week of April. Fall migration usually begins in mid-August and continues through mid-September. Migration takes place at night,<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"> {{cite web|url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Hylocichla_mustelina.html|author=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology|title=Wood Thrush|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> allowing them to find their direction from the [[star]]s and orient themselves by detecting the earth's magnetic field.<ref name="Naturalist's Notes"> {{cite web|url=http://www.wildwnc.org/natnotes/mysteryofmigration.html|author=Dan Lazar|title=The Mysteries of Migration - Transmutation or Long-Distance Travelers?|accessmonthday=[[26 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> The Wood Thrush prefers [[deciduous]] and mixed forests for breeding. It prefers late-successional, upland mesic forests with a moderately-dense shrub layer. [[Robert I. Bertin]] (1977) found that this thrush favors areas with running water, moist ground, and high understorey cover.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> The breeding habitat generally includes trees taller than 16&nbsp;m (50&nbsp;ft), a fairly open forest floor, moist soil, and leaf litter, with substrate moisture more important than either canopy cover or access to running water. The Wood Thrush can breed in habitat patches as small as 0.4&nbsp;hectares (1&nbsp;acre), but it runs the risk of higher predation and [[edge effect|nest parasitism]].<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> The Wood Thrush's breeding range has expanded northward, displacing the [[Veery]] and [[Hermit Thrush]] in some locations. In recent times, as a result of fragmentation of forests, it has been increasingly exposed to [[edge effect|nest parasitism]] by [[Brown-headed Cowbird]]s, as well as loss of habitat in the winter range. ===Conservation Status=== The Wood Thrush has become a symbol of the decline of Neotropical songbirds of eastern North America, having declined 43 percent since 1966.<ref name="All About Birds"> {{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Wood_Thrush_dtl.html|author=Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology All About Birds|title=Wood Thrush|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> Along with many other species, this thrush faces threats both to is North American breeding grounds and Central American wintering grounds. Forest fragmentation in North American forests has resulted in both increased nest predation and increased cowbird parasitism, significantly reducing their reproductive success. A study by the [[Cornell]] Lab of Ornithology was the first large-scale analysis that linked acid rain to this thrush's decline.<ref name="Birdscope"> {{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/publications/birdscope/Autumn2002/wood_thrush.html |author=Miyoko Chu, Stefan Hames.|title=Wood Thrush Declines Linked to Acid Rain|accessmonthday=[[17 June]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> Continued destruction of primary forest in Central America eliminated preferred Wood Thrush wintering habitats, likely forcing the birds to choose secondary habitats where mortality rates are higher. In spite of this, the Wood Thrush is still considered to be of [[least concern]].<ref name="Birdlife"/> ===Vagrancy=== Wood Thrush has occurred as a [[vagrancy in birds|vagrant]] once in [[Europe]], on the [[Isles of Scilly]], [[England]] in October 1987.<ref>Dukes, Paul, (1987) "A New British Bird - Wood Thrush on St Agnes" ''[[Twitching (magazine)|Twitching]]'' Vol. 1 No. 10 pp. 299-300</ref><ref>Dukes, Paul (1995) Wood Thrush in Scilly: new to Britain and Ireland ''[[British Birds (magazine)|British Birds]]'' Vol. 88 No. 3 pp. 133-135</ref> ==Behavior== The Wood Thrush is primarily solitary, but occasionally forms mixed-species flocks in the winter. Its breeding territory range from 800 to at least 8000 square meters in size, and are used for nesting, gathering nest materials, and foraging.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> Some Wood Thrushes also defend a feeding territory in the winter. Territorial interactions are usually settled without physical contact, but in high-intensity encounters or nest defense, physical interactions with the feet or bill have been observed. Defense behaviors in response to nest predators include wing flicks, tail flicks, and raising the crest, sometimes escalating to dives and strikes.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> This species has also been observed displaying a behavior known as ''anting.'' Anting occurs when a bird picks up a single [[ant]] or group of ants and rubs them on its feathers. The purpose of this behavior is unknown, but it is thought that the birds may be able to acquire defensive secretions from the ants possibly used for some medicinal purposes, or that it simply supplements the birds' own preen oil.<ref name="All About Birds"/> ===Diet=== Soil invertebrates and larvae make up most of the Wood Thrush's omnivorous diet, but it will also eat fruits in the late summer, fall, and late winter. It occasionally feeds on arboreal [[insect]]s, [[snail]]s, and small [[salamander]]s. The young are fed insects and some fruit.<ref name="All About Birds"/> After breeding and before migration, the Wood Thrush will switch from insects to fruits with high lipid levels. In the summer, low fruit consumption and lipid reserves require the bird to feed on insects continuously in order to meet its metabolic needs.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> The Wood Thrush forages mainly on the forest floor, flipping leaves over with their bills to reveal insects. It can be observed hopping around in leaf litter and on semi-bare ground under the forest canopy. Fruits are swallowed whole.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> ===Predation=== Eggs and chicks are vulnerable to [[chipmunk]]s, [[raccoon]]s, [[Blue Jay]]s, [[American Crow]]s, [[black rat snakes]], [[Brown-headed Cowbird]]s, [[Common Grackle]]s, [[southern flying squirrel]]s, [[gray squirrel]]s, [[least weasel]]s, [[white-footed mouse|white-footed mice]], domestic [[cat]]s, [[Great Horned Owl]]s, and [[Sharp-shinned Hawk]]s. Adults are primarily taken by [[hawk]]s and [[owl]]s.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> ===Reproduction=== Wood Thrushes are monogamous. Breeding pairs form in mid-April to early-May, and usually last throughout the breeding season. Most thrushes find a new mate each year, and mate guarding and extra-pair copulations have not been observed in this species.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> Some male Wood Thrushes arrive at the breeding grounds several days before the earliest females while other males arrive at the same time as the females, establishing territories ranging in size from 0.08 to 0.8&nbsp;hectares (one-fifth of an acre to two acres).<ref name="Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology"/> The female typically leads silent circular flights 1-1.8&nbsp;m (3-6&nbsp;ft) from the ground, with the male chasing. Six or more flights generally take place in succession. The pairs will perch together and feed each other in between flights.<ref name="All About Birds"/> The male begins to sing at dawn and dusk a few days after arriving at breeding grounds. Early in the breeding season, the male sings from high perches in the tallest trees, but as the season progresses, it sings somewhat shorter and less elaborate songs from lower perches. Each day's singing begins and is most intense just before sunrise. The male may sing throughout the day but especially at dusk. The song season is usually over by the end of July.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> Typically, the female chooses the nest site and builds the nest. However, there has been some indication that the male is able to influence the selection of the nest site by perching nearby and singing. Usually, though, the female chooses whether or not to accept or reject the nest site suggested by the male.<ref name="Nesting Behavior of the Wood Thrush">{{cite web|url=http://elibrary.unm.edu/sora/Wilson/v070n01/p0070-p0089.pdf|author=Hervey Brackbill.|title=Nesting Behavior of the Wood Thrush|accessmonthday=[[17 May]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> The nest is usually sited in a dense patch of vegetation in a tree or shrub that provides concealment and shade. It is usually made of dead grasses, stems, and leaves, and lined with mud, and placed in a fork at a horizontal branch. The nest is not reused. Usually, two broods are attempted, although three to four separate nests may be built before a pair succeeds. Two to four pale blue eggs are laid at the rate of one per day.<ref name="Audubon">{{cite web|url=http://www.audubon2.org/webapp/watchlist/viewSpecies.jsp?id=222|author=D. A. Sibley.|title=Wood Thrush|accessmonthday=[[17 May]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> The eggs are incubated by the female only for 11 to 14 days, with the average being 13 days. Like all passerines, the chicks are [[altricial]] at hatching, mostly naked with closed eyes.<ref name="Stanford">{{cite web|url=http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/Precocial_and_Altricial.html|author=Paul R. Ehrlich, David S. Dobkin, and Darryl Wheye.|title=Precocial and Atricial|accessmonthday=[[6 May]]|accessyear=2007|language=English}}</ref> The female broods the chicks during the first four days after hatching. Both parents feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs from the nest. The chicks [[fledge]] 12-15&nbsp;days after hatching, but the parents continue to feed them until they become independent and leave the parents' territory at 21-31&nbsp;days old. The young Wood Thrush is able to begin breeding the next summer. Most females lay their first eggs in mid-May, but older females may begin laying sooner. Pairs usually attempt to rear a second brood no later than late July, with the last of the young fledging around mid-August.<ref name="University of Michigan Museum of Zoology"/> About half of all Wood Thrush pairs successfully raise two broods.<ref name="Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology"/> ==References==<!-- BirdConservInt17:45. Condor107:765. WilsonBull18:47 (compare modern OOC checklist). --> <div class="references-small"><references/></div> ==External links== *[http://www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/id/framlst/i7550id.html Wood Thrush - ''Hylocichla mustelina''] - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter *[http://www.sdakotabirds.com/species/wood_thrush_info.htm Wood Thrush Information] - South Dakota Birds and Birding *[http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/Wood_Thrush.html Wood Thrush Species Account] - Cornell Lab of Ornithology *[http://pages.cthome.net/rwinkler/woodthrush.htm Song of Summer] - incomparable music of the Wood Thrush *[http://ibc.hbw.com/ibc/phtml/especie.phtml?idEspecie=5924 Wood Thrush videos] on the Internet Bird Collection *[http://www.naturesound.com/birds/pages/woody.html Bird photograph and song: Wood Thrush] - [http://www.naturesound.com/birds/audio/woody.ram Audio clip] *[http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2002/08/0813_020813_acidrain.html Is Acid Rain Killing Off Wood Thrushes?] - Nationalgeographic.com <!-- outside of c. amer & n. amer, a "passage migrant", or a vagrant --> <!-- (E.) N. Amer and Central Amer. bird; see natureserve.org RangeMaps --> {{DEFAULTSORT:Thrush, Wood}} [[Category:Turdidae]]<!-- see RangeMaps at www.natureserve.org --> [[Category:Genera of birds]] [[Category:United States state birds]] [[Category:Birds of North America]] [[Category:Birds of Canada]] [[Category:Birds of the United States]] [[Category:Birds of Mexico]] [[Category:Birds of Belize]] [[Category:Birds of Guatemala]] [[Category:Birds of El Salvador]] [[Category:Birds of Honduras]] [[Category:Birds of Nicaragua]] [[Category:Birds of Costa Rica]] [[Category:Birds of Panama]] [[Category:Birds of Central America]] [[Category:Birds of Colombia]] [[de:Walddrossel]] [[fr:Grive des bois]] [[ja:モリツグミ]]