Yellow fever 34254 225158230 2008-07-12T05:14:47Z RDBrown 539176 /* History */ => Cite Journal with DOI bot {{DiseaseDisorder infobox | Name = Yellow fever | Image = | Caption = | ICD10 = {{ICD10|A|95||a|90}} | ICD9 = {{ICD9|060}} | ICDO = | OMIM = | DiseasesDB = 14203 | MedlinePlus = 001365| eMedicineSubj = med | eMedicineTopic = 2432 | eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|645}} | MeshID = D015004 }} {{Taxobox <!-- Color parameter is not needed -- automatically assigned --> | name = ''Yellow fever virus'' | image = YellowFeverVirus.jpg | image_caption = [[Transmission electron microscopy|TEM]] [[micrograph]]: Multiple yellow fever virions (234,000x magnificatio). | virus_group = iv | familia = ''[[Flaviviridae]]'' | genus = ''[[Flavivirus]]'' | type_species = '''''Yellow fever virus''''' }} {{otheruses}} '''Yellow fever ''' (also called ''yellow jack'', ''black vomit'' or sometimes ''American Plague'') is an acute [[Virus|viral]] disease.<ref name=Baron>{{cite book | author = Schmaljohn AL, McClain D.| chapter = Alphaviruses (Togaviridae) and Flaviviruses (Flaviviridae) | editor=Baron S |title=Medical Microbiology| edition =4th ed. | publisher = Univ of Texas Medical Branch|year = 1996 | isbn= 0-9631172-1-1 }}</ref> It is an important cause of [[hemorrhage|hemorrhagic]] illness in many [[Africa]]n and [[South America]]n countries despite existence of an effective [[vaccine]]. The ''yellow'' refers to the [[jaundice]] symptoms that affect some patients.<ref name =WHO2000>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/surveillance/WHO_Report_Infectious_Diseases.pdf |title=WHO Report on Global Surveillance of Epidemic-prone Infectious Diseases |accessdate=2007-06-11|author=Anker M, Schaaf D, ''et al''|date= 2000-01-07| |format=PDF |publisher=WHO |pages=11 }}</ref> Yellow fever has been a source of several devastating [[epidemic]]s. French soldiers were attacked by yellow fever during the [[1802]] [[Haitian Revolution]]; more than half of the army perished from the disease.<ref name=Bollet_2004>{{cite book | last = Bollet | first = AJ | title = Plagues and Poxes: The Impact of Human History on Epidemic Disease | pages=pp. 48&ndash;9 | publisher = Demos Medical Publishing | year = 2004 | id = ISBN 188879979X }}</ref> Outbreaks followed by thousands of deaths occurred periodically in other [[Western Hemisphere]] locations until research, which included human volunteers (some of whom died), led to an understanding of the method of transmission to humans (primarily by [[mosquito]]s) and development of a vaccine and other preventive efforts in the early 20th century. Despite the costly and sacrificial breakthrough research by Cuban physician [[Carlos Finlay]], American physician [[Walter Reed]], and many others over 100 years ago, unvaccinated populations in many developing nations in Africa and Central and South America continue to be at risk.<ref name=Tomori_2002>{{cite journal | author=Tomori O | title=Yellow fever in Africa: public health impact and prospects for control in the 21st century | journal=Biomedica | year=2002 | pages=178–210 | volume=22|issue=2|pmid = 12152484 }}</ref> As of 2001, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) estimates that yellow fever causes 200,000 illnesses and 30,000 deaths every year in unvaccinated populations.<ref name=WHO_2001>{{cite web | title=Yellow fever fact sheet | work=WHO&mdash;Yellow fever | url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs100/en/ | accessdate=2006-04-18}}</ref> ==Pathogenesis== [[Image:Aedes aegypti mosquito2.jpg|left|thumb|150px|The female ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' mosquito on a human host, about to obtain a blood meal]] Yellow fever is caused by an [[arbovirus]] of the family [[Flaviviridae]], a positive sense single-stranded [[RNA]] virus. Human infection begins after deposition of viral particles through the skin in infected [[arthropod]] [[saliva]]. The mosquitos involved are ''[[Aedes simpsaloni]]'', ''[[Aedes africanus|A. africanus]]'', and ''[[Aedes aegypti|A. aegypti]]'' in Africa, the ''[[Haemagogus]]'' genus in South America,<ref name=WHO_2001 /> and the ''[[Sabethes]]'' genus in France. Yellow fever is frequently severe but moderate cases may occur as the result of previous infection by another flavivirus. After infection the virus first replicates locally, followed by transportation to the rest of the body via the [[lymphatic system]].<ref name=Sherris>{{cite book | author = Ryan KJ; Ray CG (editors) | title = Sherris Medical Microbiology | edition = 4th ed. | publisher = McGraw Hill|year = 2004|id = ISBN 0-8385-8529-9 }}</ref> Following systemic lymphatic infection the virus proceeds to establish itself throughout organ systems, including the heart, kidneys, [[adrenal gland]]s, and the [[parenchyma]] of the liver; high viral loads are also present in the blood.<ref name=Baron /> Necrotic masses ([[Councilman body|Councilman bodies]]) appear in the [[cytoplasm]] of [[hepatocyte]]s.<ref name=Sherris /><sup>,</sup><ref name=Quaresma_2006>{{cite journal | author=Quaresma JA, Barros VL, Pagliari C, Fernandes ER, Guedes F, Takakura CF, Andrade HF Jr, Vasconcelos PF, Duarte MI | title=Revisiting the liver in human yellow fever: virus-induced apoptosis in hepatocytes associated with TGF-beta, TNF-alpha and NK cells activity | journal=Virology | year=2006 | pages=22–30 | volume=345 | issue=1 | pmid= 16278000 | doi = 10.1016/j.virol.2005.09.058 <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot-->}}</ref> Yellow fever begins suddenly after an incubation period of three to five days in the human body. In mild cases only fever and headache may be present. The severe form of the disease commences with fever, chills, bleeding into the skin, rapid heartbeat, headache, back pains, and extreme prostration. Nausea, vomiting, and constipation are common. Jaundice usually appears on the second or third day. After the third day the symptoms recede, only to return with increased severity in the final stage, during which there is a marked tendency to hemorrhage internally; the characteristic “coffee ground” vomitus contains blood. The patient then lapses into delirium and coma, often followed by death. During epidemics the fatality rate was often as high as 85%. Although the disease still occurs, it is usually confined to sporadic outbreaks. There is a difference between disease outbreaks in rural or forest areas and in towns. Disease outbreaks in towns and non-native people may be more serious because of higher densities of [[mosquito]] [[Vector (biology)|vectors]] and higher population densities.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barnett |first=ED |year=2007 |month=March |title=Yellow fever: epidemiology and prevention. |journal=Clin Infect Dis |volume=44 |issue=6 |pages=850–6 |accessdate= 2007-12-05 |doi=10.1086/511869}}</ref> ==Prevention== In 1937, [[Max Theiler]], working at the [[Rockefeller Foundation]], developed a safe and highly efficacious [[vaccine]] for yellow fever that gives a ten-year or more immunity from the virus. The vaccine consists of a live, but attenuated, virus called 17D. The 17D vaccine has been used commercially since the 1950s. The mechanisms of [[attenuation]] and [[immunogenicity]] for the 17D strain are not known. However, this vaccine is very safe, with few adverse reactions having been reported and millions of doses administered, and highly effective with over 90% of vaccinees developing a measurable immune response after the first dose. Although the vaccine is considered safe, there are risks involved. The majority of adverse reactions to the 17D vaccine result from allergic reaction to the eggs in which the vaccine is grown. Persons with a known [[egg allergy]] should discuss this with their physician prior to vaccination. In addition, there is a small risk of [[neurologic disease]] and [[encephalitis]], particularly in individuals with compromised [[immune system]]s and very young children. The 17D vaccine is [[contraindicated]] in infants, pregnant women, and anyone with a diminished immune capacity, including those taking [[immunosuppressant drugs]]. According to the travel clinic at the University of Utah Hospital, the vaccine presents an increased risk of adverse reaction in adults aged 60 and older, with the risk increasing again after age 65, and again after age 70. The reaction is capable of producing multiple organ failure and should be evaluated carefully by a qualified health professional before being administered to the elderly. Finally, there is a very small risk of more severe yellow fever-like disease associated with the vaccine. This reaction occurs in ~1-3 vaccinees per million doses administered. This reaction, called YEL-AVD, causes a fairly severe disease closely resembling yellow fever caused by [[virulent]] strains of the virus. The risk factor/s for YEL-AVD are not known, although it has been suggested that it may be genetic. The 2`-5` [[oligoadenylate synthetase]] (OAS) component of the [[innate immune response]] has been shown to be particularly important in protection from Flavivirus infection. In at least one case of YEL-AVD, the patient was found to have an allelic mutation in a [[single nucleotide polymorphism]] (SNP) of the OAS gene. People most at risk of contracting the virus should be vaccinated. Woodcutters working in tropical areas should be particularly targeted for vaccination. [[Insecticide]]s, protective clothing, and screening of houses are helpful, but not always sufficient for mosquito control; people should always use an insecticide spray while in certain areas. In affected areas, [[mosquito control]] methods have proven effective in decreasing the number of cases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/health/mosquitoes/mosquitojoint.htm#programs |title= Joint Statement on Mosquito Control in the United States from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |accessmonthday= June 25 |accessyear=2006 |date= 2000-05-03| |format=PDF |publisher=Environmental Protection Agency |}}</ref> Recent studies have noted the increase in the number of areas affected by a number of mosquito-borne viral infections and have called for further research and funding for vaccines.<ref name=Pugachev_2005>{{cite journal | title=New developments in flavivirus vaccines with special attention to yellow fever | journal=Curr Opin Infect Dis | year=2005 | pages=387–94 | volume=18 | issue=5 | pmid=16148524 | doi = 10.1097/01.qco.0000178823.28585.ad <!--Retrieved from CrossRef by DOI bot--> | unused_data=hibidagibida lakolukeahikimoluedhfjjdhbgfeuwbfuefuhehfgsduffuyefouweygfyujshdfhsdfyugusdgfuygefuygsyugfyuewgfyuosfsgfyurgfusgfugsufgsufgusygfryugug author=Pugachev KV, Guirakhoo F, Monath TP}}</ref><sup>,</sup><ref name=Petersen_2005>{{cite journal | author=Petersen LR, Marfin AA | title=Shifting epidemiology of Flaviviridae | journal=J Travel Med | year=2005 | pages=S3–11 | volume=12 Suppl 1 | pmid=16225801 }}</ref> ==Treatment== There is no true cure for yellow fever, therefore vaccination is important. Treatment is [[symptomatic]] and supportive only. [[Fluid replacement]], fighting [[hypotension]] and [[Blood substitutes|transfusion of blood derivates]] is generally needed only in severe cases. In cases that result in [[acute renal failure]], [[dialysis]] may be necessary. ==Current research== In the hamster model of yellow fever, early administration of the antiviral [[ribavirin]] is an effective early treatment of many pathological features of the disease.<ref name=Sbrana_2004>{{cite journal | author=Sbrana E, Xiao SY, Guzman H, Ye M, Travassos da Rosa AP, Tesh RB | title=Efficacy of post-exposure treatment of yellow fever with ribavirin in a hamster model of the disease | journal=Am J Trop Med Hyg | year=2004 | pages=306–12 | volume=71|issue=3|pmid=15381811 }}</ref> Ribavirin treatment during the first five days after virus infection improved survival rates, reduced tissue damage in target organs (liver and spleen), prevented hepatocellular [[steatosis]], and normalized alanine aminotransferase (a liver damage marker) levels. The results of this study suggest that ribavirin may be effective in the early treatment of yellow fever, and that its mechanism of action in reducing liver pathology in yellow fever virus infection may be similar to that observed with ribavirin in the treatment of hepatitis C, a virus related to yellow fever.<ref name=Sbrana_2004 /> Because ribavirin had failed to improve survival in a virulent primate (rhesus) model of yellow fever infection, it had been previously discounted as a possible therapy.<ref name=Huggins_1989>{{cite journal | author=Huggins JW | title=Prospects for treatment of viral hemorrhagic fevers with ribavirin, a broad-spectrum antiviral drug | journal=Rev Infect Dis | year=1989 | pages=S750–61 | volume=11 Suppl 4 | pmid=2546248 }}</ref> In 2007, the World Community Grid launched a project where by computer modeling of the yellow fever virus (and related viruses) thousands of small molecules are screened for their potential anti-viral properties in fighting yellow fever. This is the first project to utilize computer simulations in seeking out medicines to directly attack the virus once a person is infected. This is a distributed process project similar to [[SETI@Home]] where the general public downloads the World Community Grid agent and the program (along with thousands of other users) screens thousands of molecules while their computer would be otherwise idle. If the user needs to use the computer the program sleeps. There are several different projects running, including a similar one screening for anti-AIDS drugs. The project covering yellow fever is called "Discovering Dengue Drugs – Together." The software and information about the project can be found at: *[http://www.worldcommunitygrid.org World Community Grid web site] ==Prognosis== Historical reports have claimed a mortality rate of between 1 in 17 (5.8%) and 1 in 3 (33%). CDC has claimed that case-fatality rates from severe disease range from 15% to more than 50%.<ref name =Virginia>{{cite web|url=http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/etcbin/fever-browse?id=N2659002 |title= Mosquito control ends fatal plague of yellow fever|accessdate = 2007-06-11 |author=Mauer HB |accessyear=2006 |publisher=etext.lib.virginia.edu}} (undated newspaper clipping)</ref> The [[WHO]] factsheet on yellow fever, updated in 2001, states that 15% of patients enter a "toxic phase" and that half of that number die within ten to fourteen days, with the other half recovering.<ref name=WHOfactsheet>{{cite web |title = WHO Yellow Fever Fact Sheet |url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs100/en/ | accessdate = 2007-02-22 }}</ref> ==History== [[Image:A aegypti eradication.jpg|thumb|180px|right|Photograph taken during the 1965 ''[[Aedes aegypti]]'' eradication program in [[Miami]], [[Florida]]]] Yellow fever has had an important role in the history of [[Africa]], the [[Americas]], [[Europe]], and the [[Caribbean]]. ===Europe: 541-549=== Fragile after the [[Decline of the Roman Empire|fall of Rome]], [[Europe]] was further weakened by "Yellow Plague" (yellow fever). The [[Byzantine Empire]] suffered as well.<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1093/jhmas/IV.1.5|title=The Yellow Plague|year=1949|author=Shrewsbury, J. F. D.|journal=Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences|volume=iv|pages=5}}</ref> ===Cuba: 1762-1763=== British and American colonial troops died by the thousands in the [[British expedition against Cuba]] between 1762 and 1763. Epidemics struck coastal and island communities throughout the area during the next 140 years, with 10% of the population dying as a result.<ref>{{cite web | title=Yellow Fever Attacks Philadelphia, 1793 | work=EyeWitness to History|url=http://www.eyewitnesstohistory.com/yellowfever.htm|accessdate=2007-06-22}}</ref> ===Haiti: 1802=== In [[1802]], an army of forty thousand sent by First Consul [[Napoleon Bonaparte]] of [[France]] to [[Haiti]] to suppress the [[Haitian Revolution]] was dwindled out by an epidemic of yellow fever (including the expedition's commander and Bonaparte's brother-in-law, [[Charles Leclerc]]). Some historians believe Haiti was to be a staging point for an invasion of the [[United States]] through [[Louisiana Purchase|Louisiana]] (then still under French control).<ref>{{cite book |title=Almost History: Close Calls, Plan B's, and Twists of Fate in American History |last=Bruns |first=Roger |year=2000 |publisher=Hyperion |isbn=0786885793 }}</ref> ===Norfolk, Virginia: 1855=== A ship carrying persons infected with the virus arrived in [[Hampton Roads]] in southeastern [[Virginia]] in June 1855 .<ref name =Virginia/> The disease spread quickly through the community, eventually killing over 3,000 people, mostly residents of [[Norfolk, Virginia|Norfolk]] and [[Portsmouth, Virginia|Portsmouth]]. The [[Howard Association]], a benevolent organization, was formed to help coordinate assistance in the form of funds, supplies, and medical professionals and volunteers which poured in from many other areas, particularly the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic]] and [[Gulf of Mexico|Gulf Coast]] areas of the [[United States]]. See also ''The Mermaids and Yellow Jack: A NorFolktale'' a children's historical fiction written by Norfolk author Lisa Suhay, telling of the event and founding of the Bon Secours DePaul Hospital system in the United States in response to the epidemic.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://iparentingmediaawards.com/winners/13/20794-2-751.php |title=The Mermaids and Yellow Jack. A NorFolktale. |accessdate=2007-12-26 |last=Suhay |first=Lisa |work=iParenting Media Awards}}</ref> ===Memphis, Tennessee: 1878=== The worst yellow fever epidemic in U.S. history occurred in 1878, with over 5,000 deaths in Memphis alone and 20,000 deaths in the whole of the Mississippi Valley. ===Carlos Finlay and Walter Reed=== [[Image:K8747-1.jpg|150px|right|thumb|An entomologist demonstrates the attraction of female yellow fever mosquitoes to his hand in an olfactometer.]] [[Carlos Finlay]], a Cuban doctor and scientist, first proposed proofs in 1881 that yellow fever is transmitted by [[mosquito]]es rather than direct human contact.<ref name=Chaves-Carballo_2005>{{cite journal | author=Chaves-Carballo E | title=Carlos Finlay and yellow fever: triumph over adversity | journal=Mil Med | year=2005 | pages=881–5 | volume=170|issue=10|pmid=16435764 }}</ref> [[Walter Reed]], M.D., (1851-1902) was an [[U.S. Army|American Army]] surgeon who led a team that confirmed Finlay's theory. This risky but fruitful research work was done with human volunteers, including some of the medical personnel such as [[Clara Maass]] and [[Walter Reed Medal]] winner surgeon [[Jesse William Lazear]] who allowed themselves to be deliberately infected and died of the virus.<ref name=Reed_Army_Bio>{{cite web | title=General info on Major Walter Reed | work=Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army | url=http://www.wramc.amedd.army.mil/visitors/visitcenter/history/pages/biography.aspx | access date=2006-05-02}}</ref> The acceptance of Finlay's work was one of the most important and far-reaching effects of the Walter Reed Commission of 1900.<ref>{{cite web | title=Phillip S. Hench Walter Reed Yellow Fever Collection | work=UVA Health Sciences: Historical Collections | url=http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/healthsci/reed/browse/Public_Health.html | accessdate=2006-05-06}}</ref> Applying methods first suggested by Finlay, the elimination of yellow fever from Cuba was completed, as well as the completion of the Panama Canal. Lamentably, almost 20 years had passed before Reed and his Board began their efforts, twenty years during which most of the scientific community ignored Finlay's theory of mosquito transmission. Finlay and Reed's work was put to the test for the first time in the United States when a yellow fever epidemic struck [[New Orleans]] in [[1905]], although efforts had been successful in Havana since 1901; according to the [[PBS]] ''[[American Experience]]'' documentary ''The Great Fever'', houses were fumigated, cisterns for drinking water were inspected, and pools of standing water were treated with [[kerosene]]. The result was that the death toll from the epidemic was much lower than that from previous yellow fever epidemics, and that there has not been a major outbreak of the disease in the United States since. Although no cure has yet been discovered, an effective vaccine has been developed, which can prevent and help people recover from the disease. ==References== <!-- --------------------------------------------------------------- See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Footnotes for a discussion of different citation methods and how to generate footnotes using the <ref> & </ref> tags and the {{Reflist}} template -------------------------------------------------------------------- --> {{Reflist|2}} ===Further reading=== *{{cite journal | author = Downs, Wilbur H., et al. | title = Virus diseases in the West Indies | journal = Caribbean Medical Journal | year = | volume = 1965 | issue = XXVI(1-4)| pages = | url= }} * {{cite book |author=Downs, Wilbur G.; Theiler, Max |title=The arthropod-borne viruses of vertebrates: An Account of the Rockefeller Foundation Virus Program, 1951-1970 |publisher=Yale U.P |location= |year=1973 |pages= |isbn=0-300-01508-9 |oclc= |doi= |accessdate=}} ==External links== *[http://www.who.int/topics/yellow_fever/ WHO site on yellow fever] *[http://www2.ncid.cdc.gov/travel/yb/utils/ybGet.asp?section=dis&obj=yellowfever.htm Health Information for International Travel, 2005-2006]:from Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ===Historical yellow fever information=== *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/fever The Great Fever on PBS] *[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aia/part3/3p1590.html PBS website on the 1793 Philadelphia yellow fever epidemic.] *[http://www.rootsweb.com/%7Eusgenweb/va/yellow-fever/yftoc.html Yellow Fever in Norfolk and Portsmouth 1855] an extensive website *[http://home.hamptonroads.com/stories/story.cfm?story=88346&ran=240842 Interactive Internet article on the 1855 Yellow Fever Epidemic from Pilot Online, Hampton Roads]: a detailed story with maps, slides, and quiz *[http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/America/United_States/Louisiana/New_Orleans/_Texts/Yellow_Fever_in_Little_Palermo*.html New Orleans, 1905: Housing Conditions and the Yellow Fever]: a case study *[http://nutrias.org/facts/feverdeaths.htm Yellow fever deaths in New Orleans]. *[http://www.highbeam.com/library/docfree.asp?DOCID=1G1:106647670&ctrlInfo=Round19%3AMode19b%3ADocG%3AResult&ao= Enzootic transmission of yellow fever virus in Peru.] * [http://www.who.int/csr/resources/publications/surveillance/Yellow_fever.pdf World Health Organization report on yellow fever] ===Vaccine development=== *[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?id=turning-yellow Turning Yellow] - article by Christine Soares {{Viral diseases}} [[Category:Viral diseases]] [[Category:Flaviviruses]] [[Category:Tropical diseases]] [[Category:Hepatology]] [[Category:Insect-borne diseases]] [[Category:Neglected diseases]] [[af:Geelkoors]] [[ar:حمى صفراء]] [[ca:Febre groga]] [[cs:Žlutá zimnice]] [[da:Gul feber]] [[de:Gelbfieber]] [[el:Κίτρινος πυρετός]] [[es:Fiebre amarilla]] [[eo:Flava febro]] [[fr:Fièvre jaune]] [[it:Febbre gialla]] [[he:קדחת צהובה]] [[ht:Lajonis]] [[lt:Geltonasis drugys]] [[hu:Sárgaláz]] [[ms:Demam kuning dewasa]] [[nl:Gele koorts]] [[ja:黄熱]] [[no:Gul feber]] [[pl:Żółta febra]] [[pt:Febre amarela]] [[ru:Жёлтая лихорадка]] [[sr:Žuta groznica]] [[fi:Keltakuume]] [[sv:Gula febern]] [[zh:黄热病]]