Zhonghua minzu 255733 221832562 2008-06-26T08:45:09Z Zuxy 42960 {{Refimprove|date=May 2008}}{{unbalanced}} {{For|other uses|Chinese nationality}} {{Chinese|t=中華民族|s=中华民族|p=Zhōnghuá Mínzú|w=Chung-hua min-tsu|poj=Tiong-hoa bin-chok}} '''''Zhonghua minzu''''' ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 中華民族; [[Pinyin]]: Zhōnghuá Mínzú), literally "'''Chinese ethnic group'''", refers to the modern notion of a Chinese nationality transcending ethnic divisions, with a central identity to [[China]] as a whole. It includes peoples who have historically interacted, contributed and assimilated to various extents with [[Chinese civilization]]. It has also been translated as '''Chinese nation'''. The boundaries of ''Zhonghua minzu'' are fuzzy but most Chinese today use the term to include all peoples within the territorial boundaries of [[China]] integrated as one [[nation]]al, [[political]], [[cultural]] and perhaps even ideological-moral group. It is sometimes also extended to [[overseas Chinese]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} ''Zhonghua'' refers to the concept of "China" and is the term used in the formal names for both the [[People's Republic of China]] and the [[Republic of China]]. (See: [[Names of China]]) ''Minzu'' can be translated as "nation", "people", or "ethnic group". The ideology and challenges of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' concept in developing upon a perceived [[homogenous]] society, into a [[multi-ethnic]] or [[multi-racial]] society is akin to the [[Melting Pot|"Melting Pot"]] concept of the [[United States of America]].{{Fact|date=May 2008}} Confusion can arise because the term "Chinese" in Western languages is often used to refer both to '''Zhonghua minzu''' and to the [[Han Chinese|Han]] ethnicity, two concepts which are usually (although not always successfully) kept distinct among modern Chinese speakers. ==History== The immediate roots of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' lie in the [[Qing Empire]], a multi-ethnic empire created in the 17th century by the [[Manchu]]s. Faced with the necessity to legitimize their rule over the different peoples that they had conquered, the Manchus sought to portray themselves as ideal Confucian rulers for the Chinese, [[Grand khan]]s for the [[Mongols]], and [[Chakravartin]] kings for [[Tibet]]an [[Buddhist]]s. This involved developing clear ethnic or religious identities within the empire. Administratively, the empire was divided into the provinces of China ([[China proper]]) and the territories of Mongols, Tibetans, and Muslims, which were not subject to the control of the Chinese bureaucracy. Settlement of Han Chinese in these territories (including [[Willow Palisade|Manchuria]]) was forbidden. In this fashion, the Qing court intended and to a large part succeeded in gaining the loyalty of the large [[Han Chinese]] [[Gentry (China)|gentry]], whose cooperation was essential to govern China, as well as other groups such as the Mongols, who acknowledged the Qing as successors to [[Chinggis Khan]]. Qing policy on these territories only changed with the establishment of [[Xinjiang]] as a province of China in 1884. In the late 19th century, the identities which the Qing promoted were modified under the influence of Western concepts of ethnicity and nationality. Chinese nationalists such as [[Sun Yat-sen]] initially planned to expel the Manchus as "foreign invaders" <ref>[http://www.cefc.com.hk/uk/pc/articles/art_ligne.php?num_art_ligne=1807] See speech by Tongmenghui adherent</ref> and establish a Chinese [[nation-state]] modelled closely after [[Germany]] and [[Japan]]. Fearing, however, that this restrictive view of the ethnic nation-state would result in the dismemberment and domination of the Qing empire by Western powers, Chinese nationalists discarded this concept and extended the scope of China to cover the entire territory of the Qing state. The abdication of the Qing emperor inevitably led to controversy about the status of territories in Tibet and Mongolia. While the emperor formally bequeathed all the Qing territories to the new republic, it was the position of Mongols and Tibetans that their allegiance had been to the Qing monarch; with the abdication of the Qing, they owed no allegiance to the new Chinese state. This was rejected by the Republic of China and subsequently the People's Republic of China. This development in Chinese thinking was mirrored in the expansion of the meaning of the term ''Zhonghua minzu''. Originally coined by the late Qing philologist [[Liang Qichao]], ''Zhonghua minzu'' initially referred only to the [[Han Chinese]]. It was then expanded to include the [[Five Races Under One Union]], based on the ethnic categories of the Qing. Sun Yatsen further expanded this concept when he wrote, {{quote|有人說,清室推翻以後,民族主義可以不要。這話實在錯了。……現在說五族共和,我們國內何止五族呢?我的意思,應該把我們中國所有各民族融化成一個中華民族。……並且要把中華民族造成很文明的民族,然後民族主義乃為完了。 Some people say, after the overthrow of the Qing, we do not need nationalism anymore. Those words now are certainly wrong.... Right now we speak of the 'union of five nationalities' ([[Han Chinese|Han]], [[Manchu]], [[Mongol]], [[Hui people|Hui]] and [[Tibetan people|Tibetan]]), but how is it our country only has five nationalities? My stand is that we should incorporate all the peoples within China into one Chinese nation (''Zhonghua minzu'')...and develop the Chinese nation into a very civilized nation, only then will we no longer need nationalism.}} The concept of ''Zhonghua minzu'' was first publicly espoused by President [[Yuan Shikai]] in 1912, shortly after the overthrow of the [[Qing Empire]] and the founding of the [[Republic of China]]. Facing the imminent independence of [[Outer Mongolia]] from China, Yuan Shikai stated, "Outer Mongolia is part of ''Zhonghua minzu'' [the Chinese nation] and has been of one family for centuries" (外蒙同為中華民族,數百年來儼如一家). After the founding of the [[People's Republic of China]], the concept of ''Zhonghua minzu'' became influenced by Soviet nationalities policy. Officially, the PRC is a unitary state composed of [[List of ethnic groups in China|56 ethnic groups]], of which the [[Han Chinese|Han ethnic group]] is by far the largest. The concept of ''Zhonghua minzu'' is seen as an all-encompassing category consisting of people within the borders of the PRC. This term has continued to be invoked and remains a powerful concept in China into the 21st century. In mainland China, it continues to hold use as the leaders of China need to unify into one political entity a highly diverse set of ethnic and social groups as well as to mobilize the support of [[overseas Chinese]] in developing China. In Taiwan, it is invoked as a non-political unifying concept of Taiwan with mainland China. <ref>See, e.g. Ma Ying-jeou, [http://www.president.gov.tw/2_special/2008_0520p/speech.html President of Republic of China inauguration speech], 20 May 2008: "兩岸人民同屬中華民族,本應各盡所能,齊頭並進,共同貢獻國際社會,而非惡性競爭、虛耗資源。我深信,以世界之大、中華民族智慧之高,台灣與大陸一定可以找到和平共榮之道。"</ref> ==Implications== The adoption of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' concept has given rise to the reinterpretation or rewriting of [[Chinese history]]. For example, the Manchu Dynasty was originally often characterized as a "conquest regime" or a "non-Han" regime. Following the adoption of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' ideology, which regards the Manchus as a member of the ''Zhonghua minzu'', the distinction between non-native and native dynasties had to be abandoned. In the new orthodoxy, the Manchus, being as "Chinese" as the Han, could no longer be regarded as "[[barbarian]] conquerors", and the Qing empire could no longer be regarded as a "conquest empire". {{Fact|date=May 2008}} Rewriting history also meant reassessing the role of many traditional hero figures. Heroes such as [[Yue Fei]] and [[Koxinga]], who were originally considered to have fought for China against barbarian incursions, have been recharacterized by some as ''minzu yingxiong'' (ethnic heroes) who fought not against barbarians but against other members of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' (the [[Jurchens]] and [[Manchus]] respectively). <ref>[http://app1.chinadaily.com.cn/star/2003/0109/fe20-1.html What makes a national hero?]</ref> At the same time, China exemplified heroes such as [[Chinggis Khan]], who became a "Chinese hero" by virtue of the fact that the Mongols are considered part of the ''Zhonghua minzu''. <ref>http://www.smhric.org/E_Bulag_2.pdf</ref> Chinggis Khan himself was an early precursor of some elements of the ''Zhonghua Minzu'', adopting the principle of [[meritocracy]] and employing a multi-ethnic contingent in his administrative entourage and military ranks, such as the [[Khitan]] statesman [[Yelu Chucai|Yeh'Lu Tsu'Tsai]] and Han Chinese general [[Guo Kan]]; the [[Mongol empire]] encompassed cultures and ethnicities from the [[Yellow Sea]] to the [[Black Sea]]. This concept was further extrapolated by Chinggis Khan’s grandson [[Kublai Khan]]<ref>http://www.hyperhistory.net/apwh/bios/b3khankublai.htm</ref>, who finally defeated the [[Southern Song]], and unified China under the [[Yuan Dynasty]] with a multi-ethnic governmental administration. The ''Zhonghua Minzu'' concept in practice is a model of [[affirmative action]], in which Chinese nationals who are not of the ethnic Han majority, are entitled to preferential university entry status, favorable tax laws, non-compliance to the [[one-child policy]], among many other preferential conditions under Chinese law for ethnic minorities.<ref>http://www.index-china.com/minority/minority-study.html</ref>This has in fact led to a tremendous surge in the population of ethnic minorities in China, which number about 5% of the total Chinese population in the 1950s, to about 10% in 2006 of the total in the year 2007; a birth rate about three times that of the ethnic Han majority group in the last half-century. Despite the superficial application of the ''Zhonghua Minzu'' concept to ethnic groups and history, the older concept of China as largely synonymous with the Han ethnic group is still widespread, even in China. For instance, discussions of [[Chinese cuisine]] usually refer to the culinary practices of and subdivisions within the Han majority, and do not seriously pretend to categorize "Chinese" food according to the theoretical framework of ''Zhonghua minzu''. ==Controversy== The theory behind the ideology of ''Zhonghua minzu'' is that it includes not only the Han but also other [[List of ethnic groups in China|minority ethnic groups]] within China, such as the [[Mongols]], [[Manchu]]s, [[Hmong people|Hmong]], [[Tibetans]], [[Tuvan]]s, etc. This theoretical concept is not universally accepted, even in China. Supporters of the separate historical identities of different ethnic groups reject the notion these ethnic groups are part of a single people with Han Chinese. Proponents of Tibetan independence or Uighur independence reject the concept of ''Zhonghua minzu'' as grounds for a unified nation-state, with some argue that their peoples have a culture, history of political independence, and sense of nationhood which is quite distinct from that of the [[Han Chinese]] or China. For some, this is an argument in support of a claim for the right of [[self-determination]], and thus a right to political independence from the Chinese state. {{Fact|date=May 2008}} The concept of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' is generally accepted in Taiwan, because its implication that both Taiwan and mainland China belong to the one Chinese "nation" reflects the shared ethnic, cultural, and linguistic identity of the two sides, without making any assumptions about the [[political status of Taiwan]]. The boundaries of who is or is not a member of the Chinese nation are not necessarily consistent. A person of Russian ([[Ethnic Russians in China|Éluósī Zú]]), Korean ([[Ethnic Koreans in China|Cháoxiǎn Zú]]), Vietnamese ([[Vietnamese people in China|Jīng Zú]]), Kyrgyz ([[Kyrgyz|Kē'ěrkèzī Zú]]), Hmong ([[Miao people|Miáo Zú]]), or Mongol ([[Ethnic Mongols in China|Měnggǔ Zú]]) ethnicity with Chinese citizenship would be considered a full member of the Zhonghua Minzu. A Russian living in [[Russia]], a Korean living in [[Korea]], a Vietnamese living in [[Vietnam]], a Kyrgyz living in [[Kyrgyzstan]], a [[Hmong]] person living in Southeast Asia, or a Mongol living in [[Mongolia]] would almost universally be considered not to be. On the other hand, ''Cháoxiǎn Zú'' living and working in Korea or Mongolian from [[Inner Mongolia]] living and working in the independent state of Mongolia would be considered members of the ''Zhonghua Minzu'', which can give rise to potential issues of identity.{{Fact|date=April 2008}} Whether ethnic Han Chinese living [[overseas Chinese|overseas]] and not having Chinese citizenship are considered part of this Chinese nationality depends on the speaker and the context. More often than not, overseas Chinese in [[Indonesia]], [[Malaysia]] and [[Singapore]] make a clear distinction between being Chinese in a political sense and being Chinese in an ethnic sense, making it unclear whether or not they belong to such a group that contains both political and ethnic connotations. The conceptual boundaries of the ''Zhonghua minzu'' may be complicated by independent countries such as [[Mongolia]] and [[Korea]], with their differing interpretations of historical peoples and states. For instance, the idea of [[Genghis Khan|Chinggis Khan]] as a "Chinese hero" is contested by Mongolia, which since the fall of socialism has explicitly positioned Chinggis Khan as the father of the Mongolian state. In opposition to this, it is common to point out that there are more ethnic Mongolians in China than in the state of Mongolia. In the context of historical regimes in northeastern China, [[Korean nationalism|Korean nationalists]] dispute the identification of several peoples as part of the heterogeneous origin of the Chinese nation - as part of the ''Zhonghua minzu''. The historical territories of the kingdom of [[Goguryo]] was ruled by Chinese dynasties in subsequent centuries. Korean nationalists claim that Goguryo is so intertwined with the origins of the Korean nation, that it cannot be identified as Chinese. A separate kingdom, [[Bohai]], which is pronounced "Balhae" in Sino-Korean, was located entirely within modern Chinese territory. However, its founders were connected with Goguryo. Thus, the argument that Goguryo is "Korean" and not "Chinese" has been applied by extension to Bohai. This is despite the founders of Bohai being recorded as of [[Mohe]] ethnicity, rather than Korean. ==See also== *[[Nationality Law of the People's Republic of China]] *[[China proper]] *[[Chinese nationalism]] *[[Chinese people]] *[[Han chauvinism]] *[[List of Chinese ethnic groups]] *[[Nationalities of China]] *[[Northeast Project of the Chinese Academy of Social Science]] *[[Sinocentrism]] ==Related studies== * [[Afrocentrism]] * [[American exceptionalism]] * [[Anthropocentrism]] * [[Ethnocentrism]] * [[Eurocentrism]] * [[Pan-European identity]] * [[Orientalism]] * [[Postmodernism]] ==References== {{Unreferenced|date=November 2006}} {{reflist}} ==External links== *[http://hnn.us/articles/7077.html The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided] Zhonghua minzu and the Sino-Korean controversy over the 'ownership' of ancient Koguryo. *[http://orpheus.ucsd.edu/chinesehistory/pgp/xiaoweiqingessay.htm Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule] [[Category:Chinese culture]] [[ja:中華民族]] [[fi:Kiinan etniset ryhmät]] [[zh:中华民族]]